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149 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Comparator
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This compares the desired value of the controller relative to
the signal that the sensor records. It makes the "decision" to turn on or off the furnace. In biological systems, the comparator determines if you body temperature is too hot relative to the set point. |
The comparator compares.
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The Controlled System
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This system generates the desired output of the
Controller. It can be composed of many structures. In this simple case it is the furnace. |
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Output
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The outcome value of the controlled system that is set by the
controller. It is the outcome of the controlled system. |
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Positive Feedback Signal
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The sensor records a lower signal than what is
required by the controller. The comparator compares the lower signal received from the receptor and the controller and keeps the furnace going. A positive feedback signal always makes the controlled system continue to function. Negative |
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Negative Feedback Signal
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The sensor records a higher signal that what is
required by the controller. The comparator compares the higher signal from the receptor and the controller and shuts off or decreases the furnace activity. A negative feedback signal always decreases the output from the controlled system. |
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Deductive Reasoning
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Deductive reasoning is based on solid accepted premise from which
particular conclusions can be logically derived. |
deductive good
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Inductive Reasoning
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Inductive reasoning starts with an observation (premise) which is not universally
accepted |
inductive bad
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Homeostasis
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cell's, tissue's, organ's, organism's ability to maintain a relatively constant output, e.g. chemical, physical.
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hypo- osmotic
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hypo osmotic
solution is a solution more dilute relative to another. Remember |
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intracellular space
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inside cells
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interstitial space
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between cells
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how does water go through your body?
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the water and ions go through the cells in your
intestine into the blood. From the blood, the water and ions are transferred to the cells. |
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Passive Transport
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passive transport is diffusion (Figure 5). Diffusion is
the movement of molecules from a region in which they are highly concentrated to a region in which they are less concentrated. |
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Active Transport
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Active transport refers to the transportation of molecules against their
concentration gradient. Active transport can work against diffusion. If there is a higher intracellular concentration of potassium than the interstitial fluid, based on diffusion, the ions will diffuse through the membrane and out. |
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osmosis
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Water will always move from the cell that has more water, less concentrated
solution, to the one that has less water, more concentrated solution |
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hyper-osmotic solution
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hyper-osmotic solution is a solution
that is more concentrated relative to another solution, |
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isotonic
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Two solutions have the same number of electrolytes. Humans
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hypertonic
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humans a solution
that is more concentrated relative to another solution |
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hypotonic
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humans. a solution more dilute relative to another
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crenation
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As the cells loss their water, they will begin to shrink because they will lose
their water |
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antidiuretic
hormone (ADH) |
A diuretic is an agent that promotes diuresis of urination,
while an anti-diuretic hormone will inhibit urination |
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aquaporins
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Aquaporins are proteins that form pores or channels which allow for the passage of water.
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concentration gradient
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The gradual difference in concentration of a solution between areas of high concentration and low
concentration. |
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plasma membrane
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external barrier of a cell made up of
a phospholipid layer, with a negative electrical charge on the inside and a positive electrical charge on the outside |
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microtubules
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support beams for the cell. individually microfibers.
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Rough ER
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rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
manufactures proteins and it has a roughened appearance since it hasribosomes attached to it (Figure 6). The rough ER is a cornerstone for protein generation. |
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Lysosomes
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They contain powerful digesting enzymes and are responsible for the
breakdown and absorption of materials taken in by the cells |
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mitochondria
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mitochondria
produce energy for the cell |
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intracellular fluid,
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The solution
inside the cell |
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interstitial
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the fluid between the cells
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white blood cell
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attack cells
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Substrate Phosphorylation
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ADP to ATP (we already have the ADP there) primitive way to make energy
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OXIDATION
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THE LOSS OF ELECTRON IONS REQUIRED FOR ATP PRODUCTION
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PHOSPHORLATION
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PHOSPHATE ION TO ATP
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CRISTAE
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THE INNER FOLDS OF THE MITROCHONDRION
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OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION OCCURS IN THE
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MITOCHONDRIA
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MATRIX
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THE SPACE INSIDE THE INNER MEMBRANE OF THE MITOCHONDRION
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INTERMEMBRANE SPACE
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THE SPACE BETWEEN THE INNER AND OUTER MEMBRANE IN THE MITOCHONDRION
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ACETYL-COA
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Acetyl-CoA is the
transition molecule from glycolysis to the Citric Acid Cycle. |
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THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE IS ALSO KNOWN AS...
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KREBS CYCLE
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CHEMIOSMOSIS
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This process of the
diffusion of hydrogen ion through ATP Synthase |
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NAD
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NAD is a co-enzyme found in all living cells that is involved in reduction reactions in the Citric Acid Cycle.
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FAD
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FAD is a coenzyme is involved in reduction reactions in the Citric Acid Cycle
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OXIDATION
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REMOVING HYDROGEN IONS FROM THE CARBON FROM YOUR FOOD
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PHOSPHORALYTION
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ADDING PHOSPHATE TO ADP TO MAKE ATP
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ACYTLCOA
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PYRUVATE BEING BROKEN DOWN BY ENZYMES
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ACYTLCOA LEADS TO THE
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KREBS CYCLE
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GLYCOLYSIS PRODUCES
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ACYTLCOA
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OXYDATION OCCURS IN WHICH PROCESS
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KREBS CYCLE
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NAD AND FAD
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HYDROGEN CARRIERS
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NAD IS _________ IN THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE
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REDUCED
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NAD CARRIES THE HYDROGEN ION (AND THE ASSOC. ELECTRON) TO THE ________ IN THE KREBS CYCLE
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ELECTRON TRANSER CHAIN
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NADH IS ________ AT THE ELECTRON TRANSFER CHAIN.
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OXIDIZED
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AT THE ELECTRON TRANSFER CHAIN, H IS STRIPPED FROM NAD AND TRANSFERED TO THE
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INTERMEMBRANE SPACE.
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ATP SYNTHASE MAKES...
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ATP
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WHAT ACTIVATES ATP SYNTHASE
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HYDROGEN IONS FROM OUT FOOD
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WHAT PROCESS MAKES THE MOST ATP?
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AT THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN.
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FLOURACETATE POISON
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PERVENTS CITRIC ACID FROM BEING USED IN THE KREBS CYCLE...CONVULSIONS
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CYTOCHROMES
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These structures are
responsible for maintaining a proton imbalance as well as being the site in which oxygen ultimately accepts the electrons. |
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DINITROPHENAL (DNP)
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ALTERS HYDROGEN GRADIENT...WEIGHT REDUCTION (SWEAT, LETHARGIA, INSOMINIA)
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CYANIDE
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DISRUPTION OF ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (NO PROTON GRADIENT, AND NO ATP PRODUCTION)
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OLIGOMYCIN
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Oligomycin is an antibiotic that inhibits ATP synthase by blocking its proton channel. (EFFECTS ARE MORE PRONOUNCED IN BACTERIA)
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HEMOGLOBIN
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Hemoglobin is the principle oxygen-carrying compound in the blood.
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Acidosis
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Acidosis is increased acidity in the blood and occurs when the blood pH falls below 7.35.
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Anoxia
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Anoxia is abnormally low oxygen levels in the body tissues.
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The Six Steps in Making ATP
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Glycolsis then Aceltyl coA then Krebs Cycle then Electron Transport System then AtpSynthase then ATP
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Gordon Allows Katie Extra Apples Always
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Reactive Oxygen Species
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cause of cancer
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displasis
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uncontrolled cell growth
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chloroplasts
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structures that convert light
energy into electrical energy in plants |
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Stroma
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A fluid filled area in chloroplasts that is enclosed by the inner membrane
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Thyakloids
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Disk shaped membranes sacs inside chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll and enzymes for the light
dependent reactions of photosynthesis |
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Light Dependent Reactions
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Disk shaped membranes sacs inside chloroplasts that contain chlorophyll and enzymes for the light
dependent reactions of photosynthesis |
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Dark Reactions (Kalvin Cycle)
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These are chemical reactions that are powered by ATP and NADPH. The end result of the dark reaction is
that carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is combined to an organic compound using ATP and NADPH. |
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ATP IS COMPOSED OF...
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ADENING, RIBOSE, AND THREE PHOSPHATE GROUPS: ALPHA, BETTA AND GAMMA
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ATP HYDROLYSIS
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ATP Hydrolysis is the process by which energy stored in the high-energy bonds within ATP is released to
produce work. |
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PHOSPHORYLATION
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Phosphorylation is the adding of a phosphate (PO4) group to a molecule.
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OXYHEMYGLOBIN
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The combination of oxygen and hemoglobin carried in the bloodstream.
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THERMODYNAMICS
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Thermodynamics is the study of the effects of work, heat, and energy on a system.
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HYDROLYSIS SPLITS ATP INTO TWO PARTS...
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ADP AND INORGANIC PHOSPHATE
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WHAT ARE THE FOUR BASIC FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM?
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MOTILITY, SECRETION, DIGESTION, AND ABSORTION
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Gastrointestional or Human Digestive System
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The digestive tract (also known as the alimentary canal) is the system of organs within multicellular animals
that takes in food, digests it to extract energy and nutrients, and expels the remaining waste. The major functions of the GI tract are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and defecation. |
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Mucosa
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Mucus-secreting membrane lining all body cavities or passages that communicate with the exterior.
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Muscle Tissue
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Contractile tissue of the body and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle
cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to produce force and cause motion. |
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Connective Tissue Serosa
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The outermost layer of the digestive tract.
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Motility
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Involves contractions in the muscle layers that mix food material with secretions and move it forward
through the gastrointestinal tract. The two common types of movement are peristalsis and segmentation. |
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Peristalsis
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When rings of circular muscles contract behind a mass of food material and relax in front of it to advance it
forward. |
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Sphincters
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Rings of smooth striated muscle which prevent backflow from one region of the digestive system to another.
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Salivary Amylase
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The enzyme in Saliva that breaks down starch.
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Chyme
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The semifluid mass of partly digested food expelled by the stomach into the duodenum.
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Duodenum
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The first part of the small intestine.
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POLYMERSATION
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Polymerization is the chemical process of bringing monomer molecules together to form polymer chains (ie
bonding smaller molecules together to make bigger molecules). |
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B CELLS
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Beta cells are a type of cell found in the pancreas. They make up a large portion of the islets of Langerhans.
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GLUCOGENESIS
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A metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such
as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. |
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SALVARY AMALAYSE
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An enzyme that breaks starch down into sugar. Amylase is present in human saliva, where it begins the
chemical process of digestion. |
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GLYCOGEN
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A polysaccharide of glucose (Glc) which functions as the primary short term energy storage in animal cells.
It is made primarily by the liver and the muscles. |
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PLASMA GLUCOSE LEVELS
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Glucose in the blood. Glucose, transported via the bloodstream from the intestines or liver to body cells, is
the primary source of energy for the body's cells. |
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INSULUN
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Stimulates the conversion of carbohydrates into fat, diminishes the breakdown of fat and increases amino
acid transport into cells. Insulin also modulates protein transcription, stimulates growth, DNA synthesis and cell replication. |
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FATTY ACIDS
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Are generated by a series of reactions that are essentially the reverse of fatty acid break down. Normally fatty
acids are synthesized in the liver, but fat storage is in the fat cells that are primarily distributed around the waist and hips. |
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dIABETES
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Diabetes is a condition in which the pancreas no
longer produces insulin. |
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DIABETES II
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condition in
which the pancreas continues to produce insulin, however the insulin has no effect on the cell so that carbohydrate intake is inhibited. |
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BASE PAIRING
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The interaction between the nitrogen bases of two nucleotides on opposite strands of DNA to create double
stranded DNA |
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CHROMOSOME
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A more highly organized form of double stranded DNA that uses proteins to compact a DNA double helix
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DEOXYRIBOSE
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The five carbon sugar ring that is a component of DNA nucleotides, it has only an H at the 2' carbon (as
opposed to the OH found at the 2' carbon of ribose) |
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DNA POLYMERASE
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The protein enzyme whose function is to create new single strands of DNA by using the opposite DNA single
strand as template |
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GENOME
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A single copy of all of the genetic information in your cell. Also known as a complete set of chromosomes.
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HELICASE
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The protein enzyme whose function is two unwind double stranded DNA into two single strands.
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NITROGEN BASE
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A structure which is attached the 1' carbon in a DNA or RNA nucleotide. DNA nucleotides can have one of
four different nitrogen bases attached at the 1' carbon. Cytosine - C Thymine -T Adenine - A Guanine -G |
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NUCLEOTIDE
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The monomer unit of a DNA polymer, It is composed of a five carbon ring, a phosphate group and a nitrogen
base. |
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PHOSPHATE GROUP
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Found at the 5' carbon of a nucleotide, they interact with the 3' carbon of another nucleotide to create single
strands of DNA. |
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PURINES
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Nitrogen bases with two rings Adenine - A and Guanine -G
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PRIMIDENE
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Nitrogen bases with one ring Cytosine - C Thymine -T
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RIBOSE
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The five carbon sugar ring that is a component of RNA nucleotides. It has an OH group at the2' carbon (as
opposed to the H found at the 2' carbon of deoxyribose). |
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SEMI CONSERVATIVE REPLICATION
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A term that describes the process of DNA replication. It means that from one double stranded DNA two new
ones are made each containing one old and one new DNA strand. |
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KINASES/ PHOSPHOTRANSERASE
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A type of enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from high-energy donor molecules, such as ATP, to
specific target molecules (substrates); the process is termed phosphorylation. |
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CHROMATIN
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The complex of DNA and protein that makes up chromosomes.
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HISTONES
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The chief protein components of chromatin. They act as spools around which DNA winds, and they play a
role in gene regulation. |
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NUCLEOSOMES
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Form the fundamental repeating units of eukaryotic chromatin.
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PROPHASE
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Stage of mitosis in which the chromatin condenses into a highly ordered structure called a chromosome.
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PROMETAPHASE
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The phase of mitosis following prophase and preceding metaphase, in eukaryotic somatic cells.
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METAPHASE
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A stage of mitosis in the eukaryotic cell cycle in which condensed chromosomes, carrying genetic
information, align in the middle of the cell before being separated into each of the two daughter cells. |
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ANAPHASE
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The stage of mitosis when chromosomes separate in a eukaryotic cell.
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TELOPHASE
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A stage in either meiosis or mitosis in a eukaryotic cell reversing the effects of prophase and prometaphase
events. |
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GAMETE
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A mature sexual reproductive cell, as a sperm or egg, that unites with another cell to form a new organism.
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MITOTIC PHASE HAS SUBUNITS OF...
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MITOSIS AND CYTOKINESIS TAKE PLACE ALONG WITH INTERPHASE
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INTERPHASE HAS
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GAP 1 (G1), SYNTHESIS (S), GAP 2 (G2)
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S PHASE
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the process of DNA replication is completed. Where
there was one chromosome, there are now two sister chromatids joined together and awaiting segregation into two new cells by mitosis or meiosis. |
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MITOSIS CAN BE DIVIDED INTO...
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prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
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MITOSIS
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CAN DIVIDE FOREVER
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MEIOSIS
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HAS FOUR DAUGHTER CELLS THAT CANT DIVIDE FUTHER
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transcription factors
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Proteins in eukaryotes that regulate the transcription of other genes by binding to regulatory sequences of the
gene. |
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DNA methaylation
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An endogenous process in the cell which adds a methyl group, -CH3, to DNA, resulting in gene-silencing, or
failure of the gene to become expressed. |
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Law of Segregation
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Each of the two inherited factors (alleles) possessed by
the parent will segregate and pass into separate gametes (eggs or sperm) during meiosis, which will each carry only one of the factors. |
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Law of Independent Assortment
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In the gametes, alleles of one gene separate
independently of those of another gene, and thus all possible combinations of alleles are equally probable. |
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Law of Dominance
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Each trait is determined by two factors (alleles),
inherited one from each parent. These factors each exhibit a characteristic dominant, co-dominant, or recessive expression, and those that are dominant will mask the expression of those that are recessive. |
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EMBRYO
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Name given to a developing organism; in humans the embryonic stage lasts from fertilization through the
first 8 weeks of development |
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FETUS
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Name given to a developing human from 8 weeks post-fertilization until birth
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ZYGOTE
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Specific name for a single-celled embryo that is fertilized but has not yet divided
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GAMETE
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Reproductive cell formed during meiosis, such as an egg or sperm,; carries a haploid set of chromosomes
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ACROSOME
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Compartment in sperm head containing enzymes that penetrate the zona pellucida during fertilization
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CAPACITATION
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Sperm activation within in the female reproductive tract
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CLEVAGE
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Early embryonic stage characterized by cell division in the absence of cell growth
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BLASTOMERES
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Early embryonic cells at the cleavage stage
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BLASTOCYST
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Hollow ball of cells formed during cleavage; first evidence of differentiated embryonic cells
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INNER CELL MASS
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Collection of blastocyst cells known more commonly as embryonic stem cells; will divide to form all future
cells in the embryo’s body |
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DIFFERENTIAN
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Transformation of a cell into a more specialized role through the acquisition of genetic changes and physical
characteristics; for example from a stem cell into a blood cell or neuron |
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PLURIPOTENT STEM CELLS
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Undifferentiated cells having the ability to form every cell type that will be present in the future embryo
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GASTRULATION
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Stage of embryonic development following cleavage, hallmarked by movement of cells through the primitive
streak to establish the three germ layers |
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GERM LAYERS
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Three cell layers of the embryo established during gastrulation; ectoderm (outer), mesoderm (middle), and
endoderm (inner) cell layers |
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PRIMITIVE STREAK
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Ridge of cells that moves from the bottom to the top of the embryonic disc; forms a hole that cells move
through during gastrulation to set up the three germ layers |
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