Biology 1& 2 From Kaplan's Dat Book

Front 1

Primitive seas contained simple inorganic and organic compounds

Back 1

Salts, methane, ammonia, hydrogen, water

Front 2

Stanley L. Miller (1953)

Back 2

Discovered formation of organic compounds(urea, hydrogen cyanide, acetic acid, and lactic acid) from applying uv radiation, heat or a combo of the two with a mixture of methane, hydrogen, ammonia and water.

Front 3

Coacervate Droplets

Back 3

Cluster of colloidal molecules surrounded by a shell of water

Front 4

Primitive autotrophs fixed ____, making ____ as a waste product?

Back 4

CO2, O2

Front 5

Autotrophic Anaerobes

Back 5

Chemosynthetic bacteria

Front 6

Autotrophic Aerobes

Back 6

Green plants, phytoplankton

Front 7

Heterotrophic Anaerobes

Back 7

Yeasts

Front 8

Heterotrophic Aerobes

Back 8

Amoebas, earthworms, humans

Front 9

Inorganic Compounds

Back 9

Compounds that do not conatin the element carbon including salts and HCl.

Front 10

Organic Compounds

Back 10

Made by living systems contain carbon

Front 11

All living things are primarily composed of ?

Back 11

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus

Front 12

Unit of an element is?

Back 12

Atom

Front 13

Unit of a compound?

Back 13

Molecule

Front 14

Cell Theory

Back 14

-all living things are composed of cells
-the cell is the basic fundamental unit of life
-cells arise only from pre-existing cells
-cells carry genetic info in the form of DNA, passed from parent cell to daughter cell.

Front 15

Compound Light Microscope

Back 15

Uses two lenses or lens systems to maginfy an object.

Front 16

Phase Contrast Microscopy

Back 16

permits study of living cells without killing specimen

Front 17

Electron Microscopy

Back 17

Uses beam of electrons to allow a thousandfold higher magnification than is possible with light. Can't examine live specimens.

Front 18

Centrifugation

Back 18

used to separate cells or mixtures of cells without destroying the in the process. Denser parts will sink to the bottom.

Front 19

Cell membrane

Back 19

Consists of phospholipid bilayer with proteins embedded throughout. Lipids and many of the proteins can move freely within the membrane.

Front 20

Carrier proteins

Back 20

help larger charged molecules cross the membrane

Front 21

Prokaryotes

Back 21

-Bacteria
-Cell wall present (composed of peptidoglycans)
-No nucleus
-Ribosomes(30s and 50s)
-No membrane bound organelles

Front 22

Eukaryotes

Back 22

-Protists, fungi, plants, animals
-Cell wall in fungi and plants only
-Nucleus
-Ribosomes (40s and 60s)
-Membrane bound organelles

Front 23

Nucleus

Back 23

-controls activities of the cell including cell division
-contains DNA
-complexed with histones to form chromosomes

Front 24

Nucleolus

Back 24

dense structure in the nucleus where ribosomal RNA synthesis occurs.

Front 25

Ribosome

Back 25

Site of protein production, synthesized by the nucleoulus

Front 26

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Back 26

Network of membrane-enclosed spaces involved in the transport of materials throughout the cell. Particularly those materials destined to be secreted by the cell.

Front 27

Golgi Apparatus

Back 27

Receives vesicles and their contents from the smooth ER, modifies them, repackages them into vesicles, and distributes them to the cell surfaces by exocytosis.

Front 28

Mitochondria

Back 28

Sites of aerobic respiration within the cell and hence the suppliers of energy. Bounded by an outer and inner phospholipid bilayer.

Front 29

Cytoplasm

Back 29

Where most of the cells metabolic activity occurs.

Front 30

Cyclosis

Back 30

transport within the cytoplasm-streaming movement within the cell

Front 31

Vacuole/ Vesicle

Back 31

membrane bound sacs involved in the transport and storage of materials that are ingested, secreted, processed, or digested by the cell. Vacuoles are lager than vesicles and mostly found in plants than in animal cells.

Front 32

Centrioles

Back 32

Microtubules involved in spindle organization during cell division, not bound by a membrane. Animals usually have them in the centrosome. Plants do not have them.

Front 33

Lysosome

Back 33

membrane bound vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for intracellular digestion.

Front 34

Autolysis

Back 34

cell commits "suicide" -ruptures lysosome membrane to release hydrolytic enzymes.

Front 35

Cytoskeleton

Back 35

composed of microtubules and microfilaments gives cell mechanical support, maintains shape, and functions in cell motility.

Front 36

Simple Diffusion

Back 36

Net movement of dissolved particles down their concentration gradient- from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration (passive)

Front 37

Osmosis

Back 37

Simple diffusion of water from a region of lower solute to a region of higher solute.

Front 38

Hypertonic Solution

Back 38

Extracellular medium has more solute than the cytoplasm of the cell.
Water will flow out of the cell.

Front 39

Plasmolysis

Back 39

water leaves the cell causing the cell to shrivel.

Front 40

Hypotonic

Back 40

Extracellular environment is less concentrated than cytoplasm of the cell and water to flow in the cell causing it to swell and LYSE.(burst)

Front 41

Facilitated Diffusion

Back 41

down gradient, carrier, no energy required-passive

Front 42

Active Transport

Back 42

against gradient, carrier, energy required

Front 43

Circulation

Back 43

Transportation of material within cells and throughout the body of the multicellular organism.

Front 44

Intracellular Circulation

Back 44

-Brownian Movement
-Cyclosis/ streaming
-Endoplasmic Reticulum

Front 45

Brownian Movement

Back 45

movement of particles due to kinetic energy which spreads small suspended particles throughout the cytoplasm of the cell.

Front 46

Cyclosis/Streaming

Back 46

Circular motion of cytoplasm around the cell transport molecules

Front 47

Endoplasmic reticulum

Back 47

provides channels throughout the cytoplasm and provides a direct and continuous passageway from the plasma membrane to nuclear membrane.

Front 48

Extracellular Circulation

Back 48

-Diffusion
-Circulatory System

Front 49

Diffusion

Back 49

from of transport that can get food and oxygen from environment to the cells in close contact with the external environment

Front 50

Circulatory System

Back 50

vessels that transport fluid and a pump to drive the circulation.

Front 51

Enzymes

Back 51

-lower activation energy
-increase rate of the reaction
-do not affect the overall delta G of the reaction
-not changed or consumed over the course of the reaction

Front 52

Lock and Key Theory

Back 52

theory discounted, the structure of an enzyme's active site is not exactly complementary to substrate.

Front 53

Induced Fit

Back 53

widely accepted theory, active site is flexible with shape

Front 54

Enzyme Reversibility

Back 54

most enzyme reactions are reversible, the product synthesized by an enzyme can be decomposed by the same enzyme.

Front 55

Enzyme Action

Back 55

dependent on environmental factors sucha s pH, temperature, concentration of the enzyme.

Front 56

Effects of Temperature on Enzymes

Back 56

-increase in temp. = increase in rate
-until optimum temp is reached (~40 C)
-beyond optimal temp, heat alters shape of the active site of enzyme

Front 57

Effects of pH on Enzymes

Back 57

-optimal pH 7.2
-anything above or below declines enzymatic activity

Front 58

Pepsin

Back 58

works best in highly acidic conditions (pH=2)

Front 59

Effects of Concentration

Back 59

increase of substrate concentration will increase reaction rate until Vmax is reached.

Front 60

Hydrolysis

Back 60

Digest large molecules into smaller components.
-In multicellular organisms, digestion can begin outside of the cells. Other rxns occur within cells.
Ex. Lactase hydrolyzes lactose to monosaccharrides glucose and galactose.
Proteases degrade proteins to amino acids, and Lipases break down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.

Front 61

Synthesis Reactions

Back 61

-directions of reactions are reveresed compared to hydrolysis.
-occurs in different parts of the cell
-required for growth, repair, regulation, protection, and production of food reserves such as fat and glycogen by the cell.

Front 62

Cofactors

Back 62

-incorporation of a non-protein molecule to become active.
-can be metal cations (Zn2+, Fe2+)
-can be coenzymes

Front 63

Prosthetic Groups

Back 63

cofactors which bind to the enzyme by strong covalent bonds

Front 64

Photosynthesis

Back 64

converts energy of sun to chemical energy of bonds in compounds such as glucose.

Front 65

Respiration

Back 65

conversion of the chemical energy in bonds to usable energy needed to drive the process of living cells.
-high energy hydrogen atoms are removed from organic molecules

Front 66

Carbohydrates and Fats

Back 66

-favored fuel molecules
-as hydrogen is removed bond energy is made available.
-C-H bond releases largest amount of energy per mole

Front 67

Carbon dioxide

Back 67

-little usable energy, stable energy exhausted end product of respiration

Front 68

Dehydrogenation

Back 68

-oxidation reaction
-removes hydrogen atoms

Front 69

Redox Reaction

Back 69

-acceptance of hydrogen
-forms high energy phosphate bond in ATP

Front 70

Electron Transport Chain

Back 70

series of steps for reductions

Front 71

Glucose Catabolism

Back 71

degradative oxidation of glucose occurs in two stages: glycolysis, and cellular respiration

Front 72

Glycolysis

Back 72

stage1: leads to oxidative breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, ATP, and reduction of NAD+ into NADH.
-occurs in the Cytoplasm

Front 73

Glycolytic Pathway

Back 73

1 Glucose--->2 Pyruvate
2ATP used in steps 1-3
4ATP generated (2 in step 6 and 9)
NET ATP Production per Glucose=2
1NADH produced per PGAL
Net PGAL per Glucose=2

Front 74

Pyruvate Degradation

Back 74

-anaerobic= reduces pyruvate during the process of fermentation
-aerobic= further oxidizes pyruvate during cell respiration in the mitochondria

Front 75

Fermentation

Back 75

-Reducing pyruvate into ethanol or lactic acid
-produces only 2 ATP per Glucose
-involves glycolysis and additional steps

Front 76

Alcohol Fermentation

Back 76

-commonly occurs in only yeast and some bacteria
-pyruvate converted to ethanol
-NAD+ is regenerated and glycolysis can continue

Front 77

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Back 77

-occurs in fungi and bacteria and human muscle cells during strenuous activity.
-when O2 lags behind the rate of glucose catabolism pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid
-NAD+ is regenerated

Front 78

Glucose Catabolism

Back 78

degradative oxidation of glucose occurs in two stages: glycolysis, and cellular respiration

Front 79

Glycolysis

Back 79

stage1: leads to oxidative breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, ATP, and reduction of NAD+ into NADH.
-occurs in the Cytoplasm

Front 80

Glycolytic Pathway

Back 80

1 Glucose--->2 Pyruvate
2ATP used in steps 1-3
4ATP generated (2 in step 6 and 9)
NET ATP Production per Glucose=2
1NADH produced per PGAL
Net PGAL per Glucose=2

Front 81

Pyruvate Degradation

Back 81

-anaerobic= reduces pyruvate during the process of fermentation
-aerobic= further oxidizes pyruvate during cell respiration in the mitochondria

Front 82

Fermentation

Back 82

-Reducing pyruvate into ethanol or lactic acid
-produces only 2 ATP per Glucose
-involves glycolysis and additional steps

Front 83

Alcohol Fermentation

Back 83

-commonly occurs in only yeast and some bacteria
-pyruvate converted to ethanol
-NAD+ is regenerated and glycolysis can continue

Front 84

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Back 84

-occurs in fungi and bacteria and human muscle cells during strenuous activity.
-when O2 lags behind the rate of glucose catabolism pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid
-NAD+ is regenerated

Front 85

Cellular Respiration

Back 85

most efficient catabolic pathway used by organisms to harvest the energy stored in glucose.
-yields 36-38 ATP per Glucose
-aerobic process
-oxygen is a final acceptor of glucose oxidation
-occurs in eukaryotic mitochondrion

Front 86

3 stages of Cellular Respiration

Back 86

1-Pyruvate Decarboxylation
2-Citric Acid Cycle(Krebs)
3-Electron Transport Chain

Front 87

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

Back 87

-pyruvate formed during glycolysis is sent from the cytoplasm to the mitochondrial matrix where it is decarboxylated.
-loses CO2
-remaining acetyl group transferred to coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA.
-NAD+ reduced to NADH.

Front 88

Citric Acid Cycle

Back 88

-Krebs Cycle
-2carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form 6-carbon citrate.
-2CO2 are released and oxyloacetate is regenerated for use in another turn of the cycle.
-Ea. turn of cycle= 1 ATP, 1 FADH2, 3NADH(multiply all by 2)

Front 89

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Back 89

-located on the inside of the inner mitochondrial membrane.
-ATP produced when high energy electrons are transferred from NADH to FADH2 to oxygen by carrier molecules.
-free energy is released as electrons are transferred and it is used to form ATP.
-most ETC molecules are CYTOCHROMES, carriers that resemble hemoglobin in the structure of their active site.