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289 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Physiological explanation |
Explanation relating a behavior to the activity of the brain and other organs |
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Ontogenetic explanation |
Explanation relating how a structure or behavior develops, including the influences of genes, nutrition, experiences, and their interactions |
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Evolutionary explanation |
Explanation reconstructing the evolutionary history of a structure or behavior |
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Function explanation |
Explanation describing WHY a structure or behavior evolved as it did |
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Glia |
Nervous system cells; varies in type and function |
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Membrane/plasma membrane |
surface of a cell; separates the inside of a cell from the outside environment |
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Nucleus |
structure in cell that contains the chromosomes |
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Mitochondrion (pl. mitochondria) |
the structure of a cell that performs metabolic activities; provides energy that the cell uses for all activities; requires fuel and oxygen |
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Ribosomes |
sites of a cell that synthesizes new protein molecules |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum |
Network of thin tubes in a cell that transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations |
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Afferent axon |
axon that brings information into a structure; i.e., sensory neuron |
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Efferent axon |
axon that carries information away from a structure; i.e., motor neuron |
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Interneuron/intrinsic neuron |
type of cell where it's dendrites and axon are entirely contained within a single structure |
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Astrocyte |
type of glia; star-shaped and wrap around presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons; they surround a synapse between neurons to shield it from chemicals circulating in the surround; and by taking up ions released by axons and then releasing them back it helps synchronize the activity of the axons enabling them to send messages in waves; also guide formation and elmination of synapses; remove waste material created when neurons die; control amount of bloow flow to each brain area; during periods of heightened brain activity they dilate blood vessels to allow more nutrients to flow to the area |
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Microglia |
type of glia that acts as part of immune system, removing waste material, viruses, fungi, from brain; proliferate after brain damage and in most brain diseases
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Radial glia |
Type of glia that guide the migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic development |
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Oligodendrocytes |
type of glia that builds myelin sheath in brain and spinal cord (CNS) |
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Schwann Cells |
type of glia that builds myelin sheath in periphery of body (PNS) |
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Blood-brain barrier |
unbroken wall of cells that surround blood vessels of brain and spinal cord; a few small, uncharged molecules such as water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide cross freely; so do molecules dissolved in fats (ex. Vit A&D / antidepressants..); protects nervous system from viruses and many dangerous chemicals |
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Active transport |
protein-mediated process that expends energy to pump chemicals from blood into brain (i.e., glucose, amino acids, purines, choline, some vitamins, iron, hormones) |
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Cause of Korsakoff's syndrome |
Vitamin B1 deficiency, thiamine deficiency causes this disorder |
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Santiago Ramon y Cajal's discovery |
They used newly discovered staining techniques to establish that the nervous system is composed of separate cells, known as neurons |
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Glucose |
brain's main source of fuel |
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Sodium-potassium pump |
transports 3 sodium ions out of the cell and 2 potassium ions into the cell |
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temporal summation |
the summation of graded potentials from stimuli at different times |
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spatial summation |
the summation of potentials from different locations |
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catecholamines |
neurotransmitter group with similar structures; epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine |
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neuropeptides |
chains of amino acids, released in either large quantities or not at all |
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nitric oxide |
neurotransmitter that is a gas, released by many small local neurons; dilates blood vessels, increasing blood flow to brain area |
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MAO (monoamine oxidase) |
breaks down transmitters (serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine) into inactive chemicals |
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first discovered antidepressants |
MAO inhibitors; work by blocking MAO thereby increasing brain's supply of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine |
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exocytosis |
bursts of release of neurotransmitter from the presynaptic neuron; due to calcium entering terminal |
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ionotropic effects |
brief/fast responses; ex: conveying auditory/visual information |
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metabotropic effects |
slow, longer lasting effects; utilizes G-protein & second messengers; ex: taste, smell, pain, arousal, attention, pleasure, and emotion |
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transmitter-gated; ligand-gated |
channels controlled by neurotransmitters/checmicals |
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Hallucinogenic Drugs |
drugs that distort perception; i.e. LSD (chemically resembles serotonin); attach to serotonin receptors and produce stimulation at inappropriate times or for longer duration |
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Nicotine |
found in tobacco, stimulates a family of acetylcholine receptors, known as nicotinic receptors; nicotinic receptors are abundant on neurons that release dopamine - > REWARD |
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Opiates |
morphine, heroin, methadone; bind to same receptors as endorphins; relieve pain |
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reuptake |
when the presynaptic neuron takes up much or most of the released neurotransmitter molecules and reuses them; done through transporters |
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COMT |
enzyme that breaks down left over NT that is not taken in reuptake |
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Stimulants |
amphetamine, cocaine, caffeine, meythlphenidate (Ritalin); inhibit transporters for dopamine thus decreasing reuptake and prolonging dopamines effects; block reuptake of dopamine |
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MDMA/Ecstacy |
releases dopamine and serotonin |
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Cannabinoids |
excites negative-feedback receptors on presynaptic cells; those receptors ordinarly respond to anandamide and 2AG; inhibiting release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell |
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transporter protein |
pumps the used neurotransmitter molecules back into the presynaptic neuron |
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Anterior pituitary |
gland releasing thyroid-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, ACTH, prolactin, growth hormone |
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Posterior pituitary |
gland releasing oxytocin, vasopressin |
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Pineal gland |
gland that releases melatonin |
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CNS (central nervous system) |
brain and spinal cord |
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PNS (peripheral nervous system |
connects CNS to rest of body; includes somatic and autonomic nervous system |
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Autonomic nervous system |
system that includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems |
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Sympathetic nervous system |
fight-or-flight, arouses body; decreases digestion |
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Parasympathetic nervous system |
decreases body arousal; increases digestion, promotes sexual arousal |
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dorsal |
towards the back |
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ventral |
towards the stomach |
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coronal plane |
a plane that shows the brain structures as seen from the front |
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tract |
a set of axons within the CNS |
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gyrus |
a protuberance on the surface of the brain |
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sulcus |
a fold or groove that separates one gyrus from another |
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fissure |
a long, deep sulcus |
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gray matter |
H-shaped in center of spinal cord, contains cell bodies and dendrites |
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white matter |
surrounding in spinal cord, contains myelinated axons; men have more of this in comparison to women |
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Hindbrain |
medulla, pons, and cerebellum constitute this |
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medulla |
above spinal cord and can be seen as enlarged extension of spinal cord into skull; controls vital reflexes like breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salivation, coughing, sneezing through cranial nerves; damage here is often fall and large doses of opiates are life -threatening because they suppress activity here |
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pons |
anterior and ventral to medulla; "bridge" axons from each half of brain cross to opposite side of spinal cord here |
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cerebellum |
movement, balance, coordination, damage here: trouble shifting attention back and forth between auditory and visual stimuli; difficulty with timing |
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Midbrain |
structures here include: tectum, superior & inferior colliculus, tegmentum, and substantia nigra |
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tectum |
roof of midbrain; 2 swellings here: superior & inferior colliculus |
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Superior colliculus |
swelling in tectum; important for visual information |
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Inferior colliculus |
swelling in tectum; important for auditory information |
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tegmentum |
under tectum in midbain; covering |
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Substania nigra |
strucutre in midbrain; gives rise to a dopamine-containing pathway that facilitates readiness for movement |
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forebrain |
consists of: thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, basal ganglia, basal forebrain, hippocampus |
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Cerebral cortex |
outer portion in forebrain covering 2 hemispheres |
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Limbic system |
system including structures important for motivations and emotions such as eating, drinking, sexual activity, anxiety and aggression; includes olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus of cerebral cortex |
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Thalamus |
a pair of structures L&R in center of forebrain; resemble 2 small avocados; important for sensory information that goes here first then gets processed and sent out to cerebral cortex EXCEPT olfactory information; sometimes cerebral cortex sent information back here |
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Hypothalamus
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small area near based brain just ventral to thalamus; conveys messages to pituitary gland, altering release of hormones; damage here: abnormalities in motivated behavior such as feeding, drinking, temp. regulation, sexual behavior, fighting or activity level
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Pituitary Gland |
endocrine gland attached to base of hypothalamus; synthesizes hormones that blood carries to organs throughout body |
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Basal ganglia |
group of subcortical structures lateral to thalamus; include caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus; damage here impairs movement (parkinsons/huntingitons); critical for movement, and learnign/remebering skills & habits as well as other types of learning that develop gradually with extended experience |
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Nucleus basalis |
on ventral surface of forebrain, receives input from hypothalamus and basal ganglia; important fror wakefulness and arousal; patients with parkinson and alzheimers have impairments of attention and intellect because of inactivity or deterioration of this area
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Ventricles |
4 fluid-filled cavities within brain |
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Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
clear fluid cushions brain against mechanical shock when head moves; also provides buoyancy |
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meninges |
membranes that surround brain and spinal cord; inflammation here = painful; swelling of blood vessels here is responsible for pain in migraine headache |
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DorsaL roots of spinal cord |
roots of spinal cord that contain sensory input |
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Ventral roots of spinal cord |
roots of spinal cord that contain motor output |
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laminae |
layers of cell bodies parallel to surface of cortex and separated from each other by layers of fibers |
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Occipital lobe |
back of brain; responsible for vision, primary visual cortex, striate cortex |
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Parietal lobe |
part of brain that lies between the occipital lobe and the central sulcus |
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Central sulcus |
a deep groove in surface of cortex; separates parietal lobe from frontal lobe and parietal lobe |
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postcentral gyrus |
area just posterior to central sulcus; known as primary somatosensory cortex |
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Primary somatosensory cortex |
"postcentral gyrus"; receives sensations from touch receptors, muscle-stretch receptors and joint receptors |
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Temporal lobe |
lateral portion of each hemisphere; auditory information; left: understanding spoken language; Movement, recognition of faces |
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Kluever-Bucy syndrome |
disorder due to temporal lobe damage |
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frontal lobe |
lobe containing primary motor cortex and prefrontal cortex; extends from central sulcus to anterior limit of brain |
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Precentral gyrus |
primary motor cortex; specialized for control of fine moments such as moving one finger at a time |
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Primary motor cortex |
precentral gyrus of frontal cortex; just anterior to central sulcus; specialized for control of fine movements, such as moving one finger at a time |
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ablation |
removal of a brain area |
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lesion |
damage to a brain area |
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stereotaxic instrument |
a device for the precise placement of electrodes in the brain; makes lesions |
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Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
the application of magnetic stimulation to a portion of the scalp; inactivates neruons in a narrow area below magnet; temporary inactivation of brain area |
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optogenetics |
using light to control a limited population of neurons |
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Electroencephalograph (EEG) |
brain recording of electrical activity through electrodes attached to scalp; measures overall activity of neurons; results = evoked potentials or evoked responses |
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Magnetoencephalograph (MEG) |
measures faint magnetic fields generated by brain activity; waves of brain activity |
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Positron-emission tomography (PET) |
brain imaging method that provides a high-resolution image of activity in a living brain by recording the emission of radioactivity from injected chemicals (glucose). |
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) |
detects amount of hemoglobin with oxygen; detects brain activity due to increase of blood flow to brain area that is active |
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phrenology |
Franz Gall in 1800s thought this was how brains were mapped; relating skull anatomy to behavior |
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Computerized axial tomography (CT or CAT scan) |
type of brain measuring method in which a dye is injected into blood and person is placed in scanner where x-rays are passed through to to take pictures of brain structure; detects tumors and structural abnormalities |
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) |
brain imaging method using a powerful magnetic field to form a structural image of brain |
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chromosomes |
strands of genes; come in pairs |
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) |
double-stranded molecule that makes up a gene |
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RNA (ribonucleic acid) |
single-strand chemical; |
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mRNA |
messenger; serves as template for synthesis of protein molecules |
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DNA bases |
adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine |
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enzymes |
biological catalysts that regulate chemical reactions in the body
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homozygous |
an identical pair of genes on two chromosomes |
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heterozygous |
unmatched pair of genes on two chromosomes; ex one gene for blue eyes & one gene for brown eyes |
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dominant gene |
gene that shows a strong effect in either heterozygous or homozygous condition |
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recessive gene |
gene that shows its effects only in the homozygous condition |
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sex-linked genes |
genes on the sex chromosomes (designated X & Y); ex: red/green color vision deficiency |
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Autosomal genes |
all chromosomes other than sex chromosomes |
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sex-limited genes |
genes present in both sexes but active mainly in one sex; ex: genes that control the amount of chest hair in men, breast size in women, amount of rowing in roosters, and rate of egg production in hens; both sexes have these genes, but sex hormones activate them in one sex or the other; generally show effects in puberty |
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FOXP2 |
gene that differs in just 2 bases from chimpanzee version, but this modifed the human brain and vocal apparatus in several ways that facilitate language development |
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epigenetics |
changes in gene expression; due to chemicals, experiences...etc |
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monozygotic twins |
twins from one egg |
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dizygotic twins |
twins from two eggs |
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Phenylketonuria (PKU) |
genetic inability to metabolize the amino acid phenylalanine, if untreated -- accumulates to toxic levels, impairing brain development leaving a child mentally retarded, restless and irritable; if diagnosed early parents put baby on low-phenylalanine diet to protect brain |
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Evolution |
change over generations in the frequencies of various genes in a population |
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Lamarckian evolution |
use/disuse of some structure/behavior cause an evolutionary increase/decrease in that feature; "if i exercise my arm muscles, my kids will be born with bigger arm muscles" -> WRONG! |
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fitness (evolution) |
the number of copies of one's genes that endure in later generations; all about who reproduces the most |
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kin selection |
selection for a gene that benefits the individual's relatives |
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reciprocal altruism |
individuals help those who will return the favor |
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Turnes genes off |
Adding A methyl group to a histone protein |
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tightens histone's grip and increases gene activation
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Adding an acetyl group to a histone protein |
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Proliferation |
production of new cells |
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Stem cells |
cells that divide and differentiate |
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Migration |
primitive neurons move early in development; immunoglobun and chemokine guide this |
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differentiation |
when neurons form their axons (first) and then their dendrites form (after they have reached their destination) |
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myelination |
process by which glia produces the inserting fatty sheaths that accelerate transmission; forms first in spinal cord, then in other structures; continues through adolescence, and early adulthood |
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synaptogenesis |
final stage, begins before birth' continue throughout life but slowly in older people |
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neural Darwinism |
we start with more neurons and synapses than we can keep; most successful saxons and combinations survive, others fail |
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nerve growth factor (NGF) |
protein delivered when a neuron forms a synapse onto a muscle; promotes survival and growth of axon ; cancels program for apoptosis |
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apoptosis |
programmed mechanism of cell death |
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neurotrophin
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a chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons; i.e., NGF, or brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF); essential for growth of axons and dendrites, formation of new synapses and learning
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stroke; "cerebrovascular accident" |
interruption of normal blood flow to a brain area |
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Ischemia |
most common form of stroke; result of blood clot or other obstruction in artery |
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hemorrhage |
ruptured artery |
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tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) |
Ischemia stroke treatment; breaks up blood clot (does not work for hemorrhage!); also decreases body temp is a treatment |
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diaschisis |
Impaired performance of neurons because neurons that used to provide them with input have been damaged |
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route of light to eye |
photoreceptors -> bipolar cells -> ganglion cells -> optic nerve -> LGN -> visual cortex |
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blind spot |
part of eye that has no photoreceptors; occupied by exiting axons and blood vessels |
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Trichromatic theory/Young-Helmholtz theory |
Theory that states we perceive color through the relative rates of response y three kinds of cones, each one maximally sensitive to a different set of wavelengths you can match any color by mixing appropriate amounts of just 3 wavelegnths |
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Opponent-Process theory
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we perceive color in terms of opposites (Red/green, yellow/blue, white/black); ex: negative color afterimage; after you stare at one color in one location long enough, you fatigue that response and tend to swing to the opposite |
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Color constancy |
theory stating the ability to recognize colors despite changes in lighting |
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Retinex theory |
theory that accounts/explains for color & brightness constancy |
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law of specific nerve energies |
law that states each sensory neuron conveys a particular type of sensation, such as light or sound |
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horizontal cells |
cells that make inhibitory contact onto bipolar cells, which in turn make synapses onto amacrine and ganglion cells |
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lateral inhibtion |
the reduction of activity in one neuron by activity in neighboring neurons; heightens contrast; ex herman grid |
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parvocellular neurons |
neurons with small cell bodies, small receptive fields, mostly in or near fovea, color sensitive, respond to detailed analysis of stationary objects |
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magnocellular neurons |
neurons with larger cell bodies, larger receptive fields, distributed evenly throughout retina; not for color; more for movement and broad outlines of shapes |
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koniocellular neurons |
neurons with small cell bodies, but occur throughout retinal; some color sensitive; varies in resposne |
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blindsight |
ability to respond in limited ways to visual information without perceiving it consciously; damage to V1 |
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Primary Visual cortex |
area V1/ striate cortex |
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Ventral visual stream |
"what" pathway; identifies and recognized objects |
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Dorsal visual stream |
"where"/"how" pathway; important for visually guided movements (controlling movements/arm leg) |
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Visual agnosia |
inability to recognize objects despite otherwise satisfactory vision; damage in temporal cortex |
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Damage in temporal cortex
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damage here causes visual agnosia |
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Fusiform gyrus |
part of interior temporal cortex that recognizes faces |
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area V4 |
area of brain responsible for color perception |
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MT/V5/MST |
areas of brain responsible for motion perception |
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prosopagnosia |
inability to recognize faces despite nearly normal vision; due to damage of fusiform gyrus/temporal cortex |
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frequency of a sound |
the number of compressions per second (number of waves), measured in hertz |
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amplitude of a sound |
intensity of a sound (height of sound wave) |
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Higher pitch = ____ frequency |
higher frequency = ______ pitch |
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Lower pitch = ____ frequency |
lower frequency = ____ pitch |
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timbre |
tone quality/complexity |
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Pinna |
outer ear; composed of flesh and cartilage to each side of head; helps locate source of sound |
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tympanic membrane |
eardrum/middle ear; vibrates at same frequency as sound waves that strike it; vibrates 3 tiny bones from here |
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3 tiny bones vibrated by tympanic membrane |
hammer, anvil, stirrup |
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Hammer, anvil, stirrup |
3 tiny bones vibrated by tympanic membrane tat send vibrations to oval window |
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cochlea |
in the inner ear; snail-shaped structures; contains scala vestibuli, scala media, scala tympani; contains fluid that is vibrated by the local windwo |
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hair cells |
auditory receptors in basilar membrane on cochlea and on tectorial membrane |
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place theory |
theory that states the basilar membrane resembles strings of a piano, with each area along the membrane tuned to a specific frequency |
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frequency theory |
theory that states the basilar membrane vibrates in synchrony with a sound, causing auditory nerve axons to produce action potentials at the same frequency; applies to low-frequency sounds, up to 100Hz |
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Volley principle
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Priniciple that the auditory nerve as a whole produces volleys of impulses for sounds up to about 4000 per second |
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Amusia |
imparied detection of frequency changes; although not entirely tone-deaf |
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absolute/perfect pitch |
the ability to hear a note and identify it |
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Apex |
most inner area of cochlea |
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Lowest frequency |
near apex has the ____ frequency |
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Highest frequency |
near base of cochlea (beginning/outer) = ____ frequency |
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Primary Auditory cortex (area A1) |
superior temporal cortex |
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Tonotopic map of audition |
Each location in the auditory cortex responds to a preferred tone, and these areas are arranged in order from low pitches to high pitches |
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Conductive deafness or middle-ear deafness |
temporary deafness due to diseases, infections, tumors bone growth; prevents sound waves from being transmitted to cochlea |
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Nerve deafness/inner-ear deafness |
deafness due to damage to cochlea, hair cell, auditory nerve |
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tinnitus |
frequent or constant ringing in ears; due to nerve deafness |
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time of arrival |
sound localization cue due to a sound coming directly from the side reaches the closer ear about 600 microseconds before the other; locally high frequency sounds due to this |
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sound shadow |
sound localization cue in which difference in intensity between ears; louder sound for closer ear |
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phase difference |
sound localization cue in which sound wave comes in to ear at a different phase than the other ear; localize low-frequency sounds due to this |
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Auditory detection order |
sound waves -> tympanic membrane -> 3 tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) -> oval window -> fluid inside cochlea -> hair cells -> messages to brain |
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cross-adaptation |
reduced response to one taste after exposure to another |
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Insula |
primary taste cortex; has areas that responds mainly to one type of taste such as sweet, or salty |
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Nucleus of the tracts solitarius (NTS) |
structure in the medulla that taste nerves project on to. |
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vomeronasal organ (VNO) |
respond only to pheromones |
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pheromones |
chemicals realeased by an animal that affect the behavior of other members of the same speciees |
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Synesthesia
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the experience some people have in which stimulation of one sense evokes a perception of that sense and another also |
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Umami |
glutamate receptor to taste |
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smooth muscle |
muscle type that controls digestive system and other organs |
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skeletal or striated muscles |
muscle type that controls movement of body in relation to environment |
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cardiac muscles |
muscle type that controls the heart |
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neuromuscular junction
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a synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber; aceytlcholine released here for skeletal muscles
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relaxation of muscle due to |
lack of acetylcholine |
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antagonistic muscles |
opposing sets of muscles |
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fast-twitch fibers |
fibers with fast contractions and rapid fatigue; used in sprinting; anaerobic - builds up an oxygen debt |
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slow-twitch fibers |
fibers with less vigorous contractions and no fatigue; aerobic; walking for a long time |
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anaerobic
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reactions that do not require oxygen at the time but need oxygen for recovery |
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aerobic |
reactions that do require oxygen at the time of movement |
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proprioceptor |
a receptor that detects the position or movement of one part of the body |
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stretch reflex |
a reflexive contraction of a muscle in response to a stretch of that muscle; ex: doctor taps right below the knee cap |
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muscle spindle |
a type of proprioceptor that is parallel to the muscle that responds to a stretch |
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Golgi tendon organs
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a type of proprioceptor that responds to increased in muscle tension; ; located in tendons at opposite ends of a muscle, they act as a brake against an excessively vigorous contraction; excite an interneuron which inhibits the motor neurons - > inhibits further contraction to prevent damage |
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reflex
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a consistent automatic response to stimuli; involuntary
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ballistic movement |
executed as a whole, once initiated cannot be altered; ex: reflex |
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motor program |
a fixed sequence of movements; ex: mouse cleaning itself -> starts and finishes only once sequence is completely done; ex: yawn in humans |
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Posterior parietal cortex |
region on brain that first becomes active in planning a movement; monitors the position of the body to the rest of the world |
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supplementary motor cortex & prefrontal cortex (in relation to movement) |
2 brain areas important for planning and organizing a rapid sequence of movements |
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premotor cortex |
area of brain most active immediately before a movement |
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prefrontal cortex |
area of brain that is also active during a delay before a movement, stores sensory information relative to movement; also considers probable outcomes of possible movements |
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mirror neurons |
neurons that are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or similar movement |
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corticospinal tracts |
paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord |
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lateral corticospinal tract; "pyramidal" |
pathway of axons from the primary motor cortex, surrounding areas, and the red uncles, crosses to contralateral side of spinal cord; controls movements in peripheral areas like hands and feet |
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red nucleus |
midbrain area that is primarily responsible for controlling arm muscles |
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medial corticospinal tract |
pathway of axons from many parts of cerebral cortex (midbrain tectum, reticular formation, vestibular nucleus, primary cortex), and goes to both sides of spinal cord; controls mainly muscles of neck, shoulders, trunk, and bilateral movements like walking, turning, bending, standing up, sitting down |
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vestibular nucleus |
a brain area that receives input from the vestibular system |
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damage to cerebellum |
damage here is trouble with rapid movements that require aim, accurate timing, and alterations of movements, such as tapping a rhythm.clapping hands, point to moving object, speaking, writing, playing musical instrument but does NOT impair continuous motor activity like drawing circles |
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cerebellar cortex |
the surface of the cerebellum |
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Purkinje cells |
flat, 2-D cells in sequential planes, parallel to one another |
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Parallel fibers
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axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of purkinje cells |
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Basal Ganglia
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brain area that includes the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus; important for spontaneous, self-initiated behaviors; critical for learning new movements and learning motor habits that are difficult to describe in words
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Striatum or dorsal striatum |
contains the caudate nucleus and putamen |
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globus pallidus |
structure of basal ganglia that sends output to thalamus |
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Suprachaismatic Nucleus (SCN) |
a part of the hypothalamus; the main driver of rhythms for sleep and body temperature; damage here: body's rhythm becomes erratic; neurons here will continue to produce circadian rhythms even if removed from brain/body; also helps direct the release of melatonin by the pineal gland |
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retinohypothalamic path |
small branch of the optic nerve, that runs from the retina to the SCN -> alters SCN's settings due to ganglion cells in response to light; |
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Melatonin |
released by the pineal gland; secreted mostly at night, making us sleepy; starts to increase 2 to 3 hours before bedtime |
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PER & TIM |
proteins that remain low during most of the day and begin to increase in evening; reach high levels at night promoting sleep; also feed back to inhibit the genes that produce them, so that their level delclines toward morning |
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Polysomnograph |
a machine that records EEG and eye-movemtns to study sleep |
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alpha waves |
waves characterized by relaxation, not of all wakefulness |
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Stage 2 |
Stage of sleep most characteristic with sleep spindles & K-complexes |
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sleep spindle |
consists of 12-14 Hz waves during a burst that last at least half a second; result from oscillating interactions between cells in thalamus and cortex; most common in stage 2 |
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K-complex |
a sharp wave associated with temporary inhibition of neuronal firing |
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Stages 3&4 |
Stages of sleep characterizied with decrease of heart rate, breathing, and brain acitivity with slow, large-amplitude waves; "slow-wave" sleep |
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Paradoxical/REM sleep |
deep and light sleep; irregular, low-voltage fast waves; facial twitches & eye movements; most common towards morning |
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Sleep Cycle |
1 - 2 - 3 - 4 - 3 -2 - REM (90min) |
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reticular formation |
structure that extends from medulla into forebrain; contributes to cortical arousal |
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Pontomesencephalon |
part of reticular formation release acetylcholine and glutamate to exit cells in hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal forebrain; this helps maintain arousal during wakefulness |
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Locus coeruleus |
small structure in the pons, usually inactive esp during sleep, but it emits bursts of impulses in response to meaningful events, especially those that produce emotional arousal; release norepinephrine throughout cortex; enhanced attention to important information and enhanced memory |
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Histamine |
enhances arousal and alertness, released by hypothalamus |
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Orexin or hypocretin |
a peptide NT released by hypothalamus that helps you stay awake |
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Basal forebrain |
area just anterior and dorsal to hypothalamus that release acetylcholine which is excitatory and tends to increase arousal ; released during REM and wakefulness; sharpens attention |
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Dorsal raphe and pons |
releases serotonin, interrupts REM sleep |
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Sleep Apnea |
impaired ability to breathe while sleeping; mostly obese men; due to genetics, hormones, old-age |
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Narcolepsy |
condition characterized by frequent periods of sleepiness during the day; 1 in 1000 people; "attacks " of sleepiness; lack orexin |
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Periodic limb movement disorder |
disorder characterized by repeated involuntary movement of legs and sometimes arms during sleep |
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REM behavioral disoreder |
disorder in which people move around vigorously during REM periods, apparently acting out their dreams |
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Night terrors
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experiences of intense anxiety from which a person awakens screaming in terror |
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PGO Waves |
waves that begin in REM sleep; waves of brain activity transmitted from pons to lateral geniculate to the occipital lobe |
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Sleepwalking |
disorder most common during slow-wave sleep (stages 3 &4); walking around while sleeping |
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activation-synthesis hypothesis |
dream hypothesis that states that a dream represents the brain's effort to make sense of sparse and distorted information; based mostly on haphazard input originating in pons |
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clinico-anatomical hypothesis |
dream hypothesis that states dreams originate mostly from the brain's own motivation, memories and arousal; the stimulation often produces peculiar results because it does not have to compete with normal visual input and does not get organized by prefrontal cortex |
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poikilothermic |
animals with this have their body temperature match the temperature of their environment; ex amphibians reptiles, most fish..; lack shivering and sweating so instead a lizard moves to a sunny place
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homeothermic |
mammals and birds display this quality; use physiological mechanisms to maintain a nearly constant core temperature despite changes in temperature of environment |
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Preoptic Area/Anterior hypothalamus (POA/AH) |
receives sensory information and sends output to raphe nucleus, which controls physiological mechanisms such as shivering, sweating, changes in heart rate/metabolism and changes in blood flow to skin |
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raphe nucleus |
receives information from POA/AH; controls physiological mechanisms such as shivering, sweating, changes in heart rate/metabolism and changes in blood flow to skin |
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negative feedback |
reduces discrepancies from a set point |
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Vasopressin |
hormone released by pituitary gland that raises blood pressure by constricting blood vessels; enables kidneys to reabsorb water from urine and therefore make urine more concentrated |
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Osmotic thirst |
thirst from eating salty foods; treatment: drink pure waater |
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Hypovolemic thirst |
thirst due to loss of fluids; treatment: drink salty water |
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OVLT (organum vasculosum laminae terminalis) & SFO (subfornical organ) |
2 types of receptors around third ventricle that detect osmotic pressure and sodium content of blood |
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supraoptic nucleus & Paraventricular nucleus (PVN) |
2 structures control rate at which posterior pituitary releases vasopressin |
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Lateral preoptic area |
area that controls drinking |
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Angiotensin II |
constricts blood vessels, compensating for drop in blood pressure; helps trigger thirst |
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aldosterone |
hormone produced by adrenal glands when the body's sodium reserves are low,; causes kidneys, salivary glands and sweat glands to retain salt |
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CCK (cholecystokinin) |
constricts sphincter muscle between stomach and duodenum; stomach fills more quickly |
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Insulin |
enables glucose to enter the cells (except brain cells) |
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Glucagon
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stimulates liver to convert some of its stored glycogen back to glucose ; released by pancreas |
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Leptin |
produced by healthy body's fat cells; signals to your brain about your fat reserves and indicates whether you have been overeating or undereating |
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arcurate nucleus of hypothalamus |
structure that has one set of neurons sensitive to hunger signals and one set sensitive to satiety signals; damage can lead to either starvation or overeating |
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ghrelin |
hormone released during food deprivation, where it triggers stomach contractions |
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Williams syndrome |
disorder marked by poor self-care skills, attention, planning, numbers, visual-motor skills, and spatial perception. Relatively good at language, interpretation of facial expressions, some aspects of music |
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aphasia |
language impairment |
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Broca's area |
language production area in brain; left hemisphere
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Broca's aphasia, nonfluent aphasia
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when brain damage impairs language production |
