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Biological approaches PS1005

Biological Approaches Ps1005

by jennyelsa, Apr. 2015

Subjects: Biology, psychology

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What 4 different ways are there to study the functions of different brain areas?	1. Examining the effects of brain damage, I. E. What functions or behaviour becomes impaired after damage or temporary inactivation ? 2. Examine the effects of stimulating a brain area, to see if it enhances some type of behaviour 3. Record brain activity during behaviour- to see what part of the brain is active during that specific activity 4. Correlate brain anatomy with behaviour - see if people with unusual brains have unusual behaviour	damage, stimulate, during, correlate
What are brain lesions and how can scientists cause them?	A lesion is damage to the brain. A stereotaxic instrument is used to create lesions, by shooting electric currents into the brain and damaging the surrounding tissue.	stereotaxic
What is an ablation and what is the relationship with transcranial magnetic stimulation?	An ablation is when a very small part of the brain is surgically removed, to be able to study potentially alterted behaviour. Today, using transcranial magnetic stimulation, we can temporarily "knock out" an area of the brain, which has similar function as an ablation.
What is an EEG?	Electro-ence-phalo-graph (EEG) records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp.	electric fields
What is (MEG)?	Magnet-ence-phalo-graph (MEG) works in a similar way to an (EEG) but measures magnetic fields around the head generated by brain activity. Both EEG and MEG can identify an approximate location to about 1 cm. However, an MEG has much better temporal solution, allowing very illustrative pictures showing changes in milliseconds.	Magnet
What is (PET)?	Positron emission tomography (PET) by injecting radioactive chemicals into the blood stream can record the movement of the chemicals using gamma ray detectors. The areas with most radioactivity have the most blood flow and therefore the most brain activity.PET provides high resolution images. For the most part, PET has been replaced by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).	Radioactivity
What is (fMRI)?	functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). FMRI records two processes that occur when a brain area becomes more active. 1. Blood vessels dilate and allow more blood to flow to the area. 2. As the brain area produces oxygen, the percentage of hemoglobin without oxygen increases. An fMRI measures the energy released from hemoglobin without oxygen when a magnetic field is removed. Fmri has a good spatial and temporal resolution. fMRI scans allow scientists to "read people's minds " to some extent by being able to predict their decisions or predict what they are viewing, depending on which brain areas are active.	hemoglobin without oxygen
What are (CAT scans?)	using Computerised Axial Tomography (CAT scan) dye is injected in the blood to increase contrast and then scans the head in a CAT scan. This xrays the head, and produces an xray of the brain. This is however mainly used to find tumors and structural abnormalities, as it only makes a still picture and not a blow by blow recording of activity in the brain.	x-ray
What is (MRI)?	Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). MRI uses a strong magnetic field to align the atoms in the brain. When the magnetic field is turned of, the atoms return to their original places and give off energy while moving. This energy is read by an MRI and forms an image of the brain.	magnetic field
Describe the structure of a cell.	-The surface of the cell is called the membrane, which separates the inside of the cell from the outside environment. -In the membrane there are protein channels which allow certain ions and water, oxgyen, sodium, potassium, calcium and chloride to cross through the membrane at a controlled rate. -Inside the cell is the nucleus which contains chromosomes. -The cell also has mitochondrion which performs metabolic activites to provide the cell with the energy it needs to perform its other activites. The Mitochondrion needs fuel and oxygen to function. -Ribosomes are the sites where the cell synthezises new protein molecules. These proteins provide building materials for the cell as well as facilitating various chemical reactions. Some Ribosomes float freely in the cell, whereas others are attached to the -endoplasmic reticulum, which is a network of thin tubes to transport newly synthesized proteins to other locations.	membrane, protein channels, nucleus, mitochondrion, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum
What are neurons and what structure do they have?	Neurons are a form of cells but are distinct because they have long branching extensions. 1. Soma (a cell body, which contains the nucleus, ribosomes and mitochondria. These vary in size from 0.005mm to 0.1mm in mammals and 1mm in certain invertebrates. Like a dendrite, the soma is also covered in synapses.), 2. Dendrites (branching fibres situated on the soma, whose surface is covered in synaptic receptors, which provides the dendrite with information from other neurons. How many dendrites and how large they are decide how much information that neuron can pick up. Some large dendrites also have dendritic spines, which are short outgrowths that increase the surface area), 3. an Axon (a thin fiber which is longer than a dendrite and constant in width, whereas dendrites slim off. The axon is the neurons information sender, that send information to neurons or organs or muscles. 4. Many axons are covered in myelin sheaths, which have interupptions known as nodes of Ranvier. However, invertebrate axons do not have myelin sheaths. 5. Presynaptic terminals are located at the end of an axons branches. They are also called end bulbs. From the Presynaptic terminals the axon releases neurotransmitters (chemicals) which cross the gap from one neuron to the next. - Some axons can be up to a meter in length, such as the axons between your spinal cord and your feet. - Smaller neurons do not have axons or very well defined dendrites.	soma, dendrites, axon, myelin sheats, nodes of ranvier, presynaptic terminals, neurotransmitters
Which two different types of neurons are there?	1. Motor neurons has its soma (cell body) in the spinal cord. It recieves information via its dendrites and sends impulses along its axons to the muscles. Motor neurons have efferent axons (i.e. axon that carries information away from a structure). 2. Sensory neurons is highly sensitive at one end to sensory stimulation, such as light, sound and touch. They send information about this stimulation to the spinal cord. Branches lead from the dendrite-receptors into the axon and the cells soma is on a little stalk sticking out of the axon. Sensory neurons have afferent axons, (i.e. axon leading information into the structure) . - However, inside the nervous system all neurons are efferent (OUT) from one structure and afferent (IN) to another structure. Some neurons are called intrinsic neurons or interneurons, meaning that the cells dendrites and axons are within a single structure. For example an interneuron has both its axon and all its dendrites inside a structure.	motor and sensory
What are Glia and are the different types of Glia?	Glia (or neuroglia) Is the other major component of the nervous system. The word glia means glue in greek, and the name comes from early scientists who thought that glia was the "glue" that held neurons togther. This is now known not to be true, but they still have this name. Glia are smaller than neurons but there are about 10x more of them. 1. Gliaastrocytes: are starshaped glia whose arms end by wrapping around the presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons on one neuron. Their purpose is to absord ions released by axons and releasing them back to other axons, thus syncronizing the activity of the axons and enable them to send messages together in waves. They also remove waste material created when neurons die and control the amount of blood flow to each brain area. Another purpose is, when there is a period of heightened activity in some brain areas, astrocytes dilate blood vessels to bring more nutrients to that area. 2. Microglia: very small cells, which purpose is to remove waste material as well as viruses, fungi and othr microorganisms. They can almost be seen as part of the immune system. 3. Oligodendrocytes: can be found in the brain and spinal cord 4. Schwann cells can be found in the pheripheral nervous system. These cells build up the myelin sheaths that surround axons, and insulate certain vertebrate axons. 5. Radial glia guide migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic development. When the embryonic development finishes most radial glia turn into neurons, whereas a smaller amount of them become astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.	Gliaastrocytes, Microglia, Oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells, Radial glia
What are Gliaastrocytes?	1. Gliaastrocytes: are starshaped glia whose arms end by wrapping around the presynaptic terminals of a group of functionally related axons on one neuron. Their purpose is to absord ions released by axons and releasing them back to other axons, thus syncronizing the activity of the axons and enable them to send messages together in waves. They also remove waste material created when neurons die and control the amount of blood flow to each brain area. Another purpose is, when there is a period of heightened activity in some brain areas, astrocytes dilate blood vessels to bring more nutrients to that area.	syncronizing, remove waste, dialate blood.
what are Microglia?	Microglia: very small cells, which purpose is to remove waste material as well as viruses, fungi and othr microorganisms. They can almost be seen as part of the immune system.	Remove waste materials
What are Schwann cells?	Schwann cells can be found in the pheripheral nervous system. These cells build up the myelin sheaths that surround axons, and insulate certain vertebrate axons.	Myelin sheaths
What are Radial glia?	Radial glia guide migration of neurons and their axons and dendrites during embryonic development. When the embryonic development finishes most radial glia turn into neurons, whereas a smaller amount of them become astrocytes and oligodendrocytes.	Embryos
What are action potentials?	Messages are sent through the axon of one neuron, through the synapses and into the next neuron as an electrical current, which depolarizes the neuron. If it depolarizes the neuron enough, depolarization will reach the threshold of excitation and the neuron will fire an action potential. When the action potential reaches this threshold, it causes the membrane to open its sodium channels and lets sodium ions flow into the cell. If the neuron doesn't depolarize enough to reach the threshold, no action potential will occur. No matter how far beyond the threshold the stimulate depolarizes, the cells reaction is always the same strength. This called the all-or-none law. Since the action potential is always the same, the strength of a reaction is determined by how frequently the neuron fires. The higher frequency, the stronger the reaction is percieved. The max strength of the action potential varies between one axon to another but a specific axon always has the same max strength. Sometimes the nervous system uses different kind of signal coding. For example a taste axon sends one rythm for sweet tastes and a different rythm for bitter tastes.	electric current, depolarization, threshold of excitation, sodium ions, all-or-none law
What is hyperpolarization versus depolarization?	These are both terms decribing the change in a neurons charge. - hyperpolarization: increased polarisation and an increased negative charge. -depolarization: decreasing polarisation, decreasing negative charge (i.e. enhancing positive charge). if depolarization is strong enough the neuron will become so positive (filled with sodium -NA+- ions) that it passes the threshold of excitation and causes an action potential.	increase or decrease polarisation.
What is the chemical formula of a sodium ion?	Na+
What is the chemical formula for a pottasium ion?	K+
What is the chemical formua for a chloride ion?	CI-
What are myelin sheaths?	Some axons are covered in myelin sheats which helps the action potential travel faster. Myelin sheats are made of fat and protein. Myelin sheaths have interruptions between them that are known as Nodes of Ranvier.	axons, action potentials
Describe the step-by-step chemical events of the action potential.	- 1. At the start, sodium ions (Na+) are mostly outside the membrane and potassium ions (K+) are mostly inside. -2. The membrane becomes depolarized and the sodium and potassium channels in the membrane open, causing sodium ions to rush into the cell. - 3. The neuron passes the threshold of excitation. - 4. When the action potential peaks the inside of the cell is positively charged and the outside of the cell is negatively charged. This causes the sodium channels to close again. - 5. however the potassium channels are still open when the sodium channels close, leaving the cell with a slight positive charge. - 6. This cause teporary hyperpolarization as all the positive ions flood out from the neuron to deflate the positive charge. - 7. Refractory period, where the cell returns potassium to the inside of the cell and sodium to the outside of the cell. - 8. Membrane goes back to resting potential.	sodium (Na+) potassium (K+)
Describe the Refractory Period	When the electrical potential in the membrane is hyperpolarizing (returning to resting potential) it is still above its threshold. But after action potential the cell enters the refractory period, when it cannot produce further action potentials. This period has two stages: 1. The absolute refractory period- (1 ms long) membrane canot produce action potential, regardless of the amount of stimulation 2. The relative refractory period (2-4ms long) - the membrane can produce and action potential, but a stimulus stronger than usual is needed for this to occur. During the refratory period the sodium channels are closed and potassium is flowing out of the cell faster than usual.
What did Charles Scott Sherrington do?	Charles Scott Sherrington (1857-1952) was the first to prove that there were gaps between axons where communication moved from one synapse to the next. He was the first to come up with the term "synapse".	synapses
What are reflexes and reflex arcs?	Reflexes are automatic muscular responses to stimuli. A reflex occurs in a so called reflex arc, where stimuli excites a sensory neuron which sends signals to an interneuron inside the spinal cord, which registers the information and via a motor neuron tells the relevant muscle how to react. Sherrington studied reflex arcs and found that their times varied, but where never more than 15 m/s. A signal can travel along an uninterrupted axon at up to 40m/s. This caused Sherrington to believe that there where interupptions between the axons, which we today call synapses.
What is Temporal Summation?	Temporal Summation is the phenomena that repeated stimulation increases a reflex. This implies that one stimuli is not enough to reach the threshold of excitation at the postsynaptic neuron, so that a single stimulation only reached the presynaptic neuron.	repeated stimulation
What is an (EPSP)?	Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). When a postsynaptic neuron is stimulated without reaching the threshold and thus not having an action potential, it is called a excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP). If the EPSP does not cause a cell to reach its threshold, the depolarization EPSP sets of quickly decays. Temporal summation causes repeated EPSP's, which build onto one another and eventually cause action potential.
What is an (IPSP)?	Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP). Musles have flexor muscles (which draw the bodypart toward the body) and extensor muscles (which push the bodypart away from the body). When a sensory neuron sends information to an interneuron, that interneuron stimulates the active motor neuron, in for example the flexor muscle. It also sends signals to other motor neurons in the paired extensor muscle attached to not react. This is done by these postsynaptic neurons hyperpolarizing, ie increasing the negative charge of the cell and moving it further from its threshold. This membrane hyperpolarisation is called an inhibitory postsynaptic potential or IPSP. Inhibiton is not just absence of excitation, it is an active 'brake' that suppresses excitation.
What is the difference between EPSP and IPSP?	EPSP - an excitatory graded potential (depolarizing) occurs when synapse gates open allowing sodium to enter the neurons membrane. IPSP - an inhibitory graded potential (hyperpolarizing) occurs when synapse gates open to allow potassium to leave or chloride to enter the mebrane.	sodium, potassium, chloride
Describe the work and finding of Otto Loewi.	Otto Loewi (frogman) stimulated the vagus nerve of a frogs heart and found that it decreased the heart rate. He then collected fluid from that heart and transferred it to a second frogs heart, which heartrate also decreased. Loewi then stimulated the accelerator nerve of frog no.1. heart, which increased heartrate. This fluid was also transferred to frog no.2. heart, which heart rate then also increased. Conclusion: stimulating the vagus nerve released a chemical that inhibited heart rate, while stimulating the accelerator nerve increased heart rate. This made Loewi conlcude that nerves communicate by releasing chemicals. In the 1950's people began to understand that most nerves do communicate by chemicals, even though a few do communicate through eletrical synapses.	frogman
(Drugs) What are antagonists and agonists?	Certain drugs bind well to different kinds of receptors. This is called that the drug has an affinity to that receptor. It also varies how the drug stimulate that receptor, the drugs efficacy. The drugs that block neurotransmitters are called antagonists. Antagonists have high affinity but low efficacy, so they bind to the receptors, blocking them, but do not affect them. The drugs that increases or mimics the effects of a neurotransmmitter are called agonists. Agonists have both high affinity and high efficacy, so they bind to the receptor and mimics the effect of a neurotransmitter.	Affinity and Efficacy of receptors
Cocaine, Amphetamine, Methylphenidate (Ritalin)	Stimulant drugs - increase excitement, alertness and activity, elevating mood and decreasing fatigue and enhancing attention (in small doses) and decreasing attention (in larger doses) by increasing the amount of dopamine (and serotonin an norepinephrine) in the synaptic cleft. Agonists - They work by stimulating dopamine synapses in the nucleus accumbens and elsewhere by increasing the presence of dopamine in the presynaptic terminals of affected neurons. This is done by inhibiting the dopamine transporter which generally reuptakes unused dopamine, thus making the effect of dopamine stronger and longer lasting. Withdrawal stage - When the excess dopamine washes away there is a "gap" in dopamine and the drug user has a deficit of dopamine (or serotonin and norepinephrine), enters a withdrawal stage which is marked by reduced energy, reduced motivation and mild depression. Amphetamine also does this to serotonin and norepinephrine transporters. Methampetamine has the same effect, but stronger. Ritalin has the same effects as cocaine but for a longer period of time, such as an hour or so.	Stimulant, Agonist, withdrawal stage, dopamine (serotonin and norepinephrine)
How does Nicotine affect the brain?	Found in tobacco Agonist - Stimulates a group of acetylcholine receptors known as nicotinic receptors. Nicotine also increases dopamine release into the nucleus accumbens, mostly in the same cells as cocaine.	Agonist
Opiates - morphine, heroin, methadon	From the opium poppy or chemically similar to this. Non- stimulation drugs - cause relaxation, decreases attention and sensitivity to pain. Antagonists - 1. Attach to endorphine receptors and inhibit the production of GABA. 2. GABA inhibits dopamine release, so opiates mimick the endorphines that inhibit GABA which in its turn inhibits dopamine, 3. end reaction therefore being more dopamine. However, endorphines have their own reward affects on the brain also. Many of these receptors are located in the medulla in the hindbrain, and blocking these receptors can cause both breathing and the heart to stop.	Non-stimulant drugs, Antagonist,
Marijuana - THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) and other cannabinoids	Intensifies sensory experiences and understanding of time. Impairs both memory and cognition. Antagonists - 2 kinds of chemicals in the brain grenerally bind to cannabinoid receptors, anandamide and sn-2 arachidonylglycerol (2-AG). Cannabinoid receptors are different from other receptors in that they are located on the presynaptic neuron. When presynaptic neurons release anandamide and 2-AG they are telling the presynaptic nerve that the postsynaptic nerve got the message and to stop sending it. However, when marijuana fills the cannabinoid receptors it i telling the receptors to stop sending without them having sent anything, this inhibiting both excitatory and inhibitory messages from many neurons. Marijuana is therefore an antagonist drug. Marijuana affects cannabinoid receptors, which are the most abundant receptors in many areas of the brain. However, there are very few in the medulla, which controls breathing and heartrate, so marijuana overdoses are not lifethreatening. Cannabinoids inhibit GABA in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain, a major source of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens. They also inhibit serotonin type-3 synapses, decreasing nausea. There are very many of them in the hypothalamus and hippocampus, areas that influence feeding, and stimulation of these receptors increases the reward of food.	Non-stimulant drugs, Antagonists (stop message sending)
What two chemicals does Marijuana release in the brain?	Anandamide and Sn-2 Arachidonylglycerol (2-AG)
Hallucinogenic Drugs - Lysergic acid Diethylamide (LSD), Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ectasy)	LSD = Lysergic and Diethylamide MDMA/ ectasy = Methyl-enedioxy-methamphetamine Distort perception. LSD= Chemically resemble chemicals in the brain, like serotonin. They therefore attach to serotonin receptors and provide stimulation for longer or innapropriate times. Why this leads to distorted perceptions is unknown. MDMA= is a stimulant at low doses, same as amphetamine, but in higher doses also produced serotonin, altering perception. When the affect wears of the user experiences lethargy (extreme fatigue) depression and sometimes increased body temperature. High doses of MDMA damage serotonin neurons, one reason for this being the high body temperature which comes after the usage. Also, certain molecules in MDMA is directly toxic to neurons. The permanent loss of serotonin receptors can result in persiting depression, anxiety, and impaired learning and memory.	Serotonin, alters perception
Alcohol	Affects both the GABA receptor, the brains main inhibitory site, and the glutamate receptors, the brains main excitatory site. Both these effects leads to a decrease in brain activity. Also increases stimulation of dopamine receptors at the nucleus accumbens. Types of alchoholism type 1- develops gradually, usually after the age of 25, may or may not have relatives with alcohol problems. type 2 - more rapid onset, usually before age 25. More common in men and if they have close relatives with alcohol problems. Addiction Tolerance - as an addiction develops the effects decrease. This is called tolerance. This is because the body learns to expect the drug and represses its effects. But when the drug is expected but does not come, the body experiences withdrawal. This has different symtoms for different drugs, but overall it is fatigue, insomnia, sweating, anxiety, neusea etc.	Antagonist (GABA and glutamate) and agonist (dopamine).
The different parts of the nervous system (CNS, PNS etc...)	1.Central Nervous system (CNS)- brain and spinal cord 2.Peripheral nervous system (PNS) - connects CNS to the rest of the body. 2.1 Somatic Nervous system - controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the central nervous system 2.2 Autonomic - Controls involuntary muscles such as heart, intestines and other organs. 2.2.1 Sympathetic - expends energy 2.2.2 Parasympathetic- conserves energy	CNS, PNS, Somatic, Autnomic, Sympathetic, Parasympathetic
The spinal cord	Part of the CNS inside the spinal column (bones) Bell-Magendie Law - the dorsal roots (axon bundles) carry sensory information and the ventral roots carry motor information. The cell bodies of the dorsal roots are in clusters of neurons outside the spinal cord, known as the dorsal root ganglia. Cell bodies of ventral roots are inside the spinal cord. The middle of the spinal cord is grey matter because it is densley packed with cellbodies and dendrites. Outside the gray matter is white matter which consists mainly of mylieated axons, which communicate with the brain and rest of the spinal cord.	Bell-Magendie law, dorsal root ganglia, interntal grey, external white matter.
The Autonomic nervous system	This part of the Peripheral Nervous system consists of neurons that send and recieve messages to and from the heart, intestines and other organs (i.e. involuntary muscles). Has two parts 2.1.1. The sympathetic nervous system prepares the organs for vigorous activity, i.e. the fight-or-flight reaction, increasing breathing and heartrate and decreasing digestive activity. Most of these synapses use norepinephrine. 2.2.2 The parasympathetic nervous system aka craniosacral nervous system (because it consists of nerves both in the cranium and the spinalcord) takes care of 'non-emergency responses'. does the oppoite of the sympathetic nervous system. Decreases heart rate, increases digestive activity and in general decreases energy use. Releases the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Both are always active, but at arying degrees depending on stimuli.	sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system
What does The hindbrain consist of and which purposes do those areas have?	- posterior part of the brain Consists of 1 The medulla- just above the spinal cord. Controlls vital reflexes such as breathing, heart rate, vomiting, salvation, coughing and sneezing. Because of this, damage to the medulla is always fatal. 2. The pons- anterior ventral to the medulla. Contains nuclei for several cranial nerves. The name means the bridge, because in it are the nerves which bridge between each half of the brain to the spinalcord nerves of the other side, so that the left brain controls the right body and so on. 3. the cerebellum- dorsal, inferior part of the brain. Controls and smoothes movement - The medulla and pons together also form the reticular formation and the raphe system. --. The reticular formation is one area which controls the motor areas of the spinal cord, and sends output to the cerebral cortex, where is can increase arousal or attention in areas of the cerebral cortex. --. The raphe system sends axons to the forebrain and prepares it for stimuli.	medulla, pons, cerebellum
What are the three major subdivisions of the brain?	The hindbrainThe midbrainThe forebrain
Which structures make up the Brainstem?	The brainstem consists of the medulla, pons, the midbrain and certain central structures.
What structures make up the midbrain?	The roof of the midbrain is called the tectum (after latin word for roof). The sides are the superior colliculus which controls vision and the inferior colliculus which controls hearing. Th substantia nigra and the red nucleus are dopamine containing pathways which control movement.
The forebrain	The largest part of mammalian brain. Has two ceribral hemispheres, left and right. Each side recives sensory information and send motory information from/to the opposing side. The outer layer is the cerebral cortex. It recieves its information mainly from the thalamus. Substructures of the forebrain Thalamus - sends information to the Cerebral cortex. Basal Ganglia - controls movement. L Limbic system, forms a border around the brainstem - The limbic system controls motivation and emotion, such as eating and drinking, sex, anxiety and aggression. The limbic system is composed of the olfactory bulb, the hypthalamus, the hippocampus, the amygdala and the cingulate gyrus of the Cerebral cortex.
The Thalamus, Hypothalamus and Diencephalon	The Thalamus together with the Hypothalamus forms the Diencephalon, which is a distinct section from the telencephalon, which is the rest of the forebrain. It is a medial contralateral structure. Most sensory information goes first to the thalamus, which processes it and sends output to the cerebral cortex. The exception to this is the olfactory bulbs which process their own information before sending it to the cerebral cortex. The Thalamus sends sensory informaiton to the cerebral cortex, who then sends it back occasionally, when that sense is worth prolonged attention. This causes us to be able to concentrate or not. The Hypothalamus is ventral to the Thalamus, together with the Thalamus forms the Diencephalon. Via nuclei the hypothalamus is connected to most of the forebrain. Partly through nerves and partly through hypothalamic hormones the hypothalamus sends messages to the pituitary gland, which alters the release of hormones to the rest of the body. This controls in part behaviours such as motivated behaviour, sex, drinking, temeprature regulation, fighting and actiity level.	Cerebral cortex and Pituitary gland communicator
What is the Pituitary gland and what does it do?	The Pituitary Gland is and endocrine structure (Creates hormones) and is attached to the hypothalamus via neurons, blood vessels and tissue. In response to messages from the hypothalamus, the Pituitary gland creates hormones and sends them throughout the body.	Hypothalamus, Endocrine.
What is the Basal Ganglia and what does it do?	It is a group of subcortial strucutrus lateral to the thalamus (on the side of, ie in the middle, to the sides, with the thalamus in the middle). Is composed of 4 major structures, the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the globus pallidus and amygdala. The basal ganglia takes care of learning and remembering how to do something, (as opposed to episodic learning) also attention, language, planning and other cognitive functions.	4 major strucutres, cognitive functions
What is the Basal forebrain and what does it do?	The Basal forebrain, also known as nucleus basalis - recieves input from hypothalamus and basal ganglia and releases acetylcholine to areas in the cerebral cortex. This is the key part of the brains system for arousal, being wake and attention.	hypothalamus, basal ganglia, acetylcholine, cerebral cortex, arousal
What is the Hippocampus and what is its function?	Hippocampus situated between the thalamus and cerebral cortex, i.e. superior to thalamus, inferior to cerebral cortex. contralateral structure. Hippocampus works with certain kinds of memories, especially semantic memories (memories for individual events). I.e. it controls input of new memories, its not storge for old memories.	Memories, contralateral.
What are the Ventricles and the Central Canal?	The Central canal - fluid filled channel in the centre of the spinal cord that leads up to the brain. The Ventricles - four fluid filled cavaties within the brain. There are cells inside the ventricles which create cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Flows around the brain, mainly into the meninges - which are mebranes that surround the brain and spinal cord. The CSF cushions the brain against shock when the head moves. It also supports the weight of the brain.	Cerebrospinal fluid
Which are the different structures of the Cerebral cortex and what are their main properties?	1. Frontal lobe- contains primary motor cortex and the prefrontal cortex. - Extends from the central suculus to the most anterior part of the brain. Just anterior to the central suculus is the precentral gyrus/primary motor cortex, which handles fine movements, such as moving only one finger at a time. -The most anterior part of the Frontal lobe is the prefrontal cortex. - working memory (short term memory) - descision making - planning movements. - People with prefrontal cortex damage often fail to adjust to their context by using higher cognitive functions, so they behave inappropriately or impulsively. 2.Temporal lobe - Lateral part of each hemisphere in the cerebral cortex (i.e. at the bottom) is the primary target for auditory information (is next to the ears) - The left temporal lobe is necessary for understanding spoken language. - Also takes care of the more complex parts of vision, including percieving movement and recognizing faces. For example, auditory and visual hallucinations are on a brain scan shown as extensive activity in the temporal lobe. - The temporal lobes are also important for emotional and motivational behaviour. 3. Parietal lobe - Dorsal to occipital lobe (on top toward the back) Lies between the occipital lobe ventrally and the central sulcus dorsally. - Ventral part of the parietal lobe is the primary somatosensory cortex/postcentral gyrus, and takes care of senses from touch receptors, joint and muscles receptors. - The parietal lobe takes care of spatial and numerical information, using our senses to determine our surroundings and where we are. The parietal lobe then sends this information on to the brain areas that control movement. 4. Occipital lobe - posterior part of the cerebral cortex. Main target for visual information. Does not take in the stimuli, but provides the experience of seeing.	Frontal - higher cognitive functions and movements Temporal - hearing and some complex visions Parietal - spatial info and movement Occipital - experience of seeing
What is the Binding problem?	How do the different parts of the cerebral cortex (the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the temporal lobe and the occipital lobe) work together to create on single experience of self? We do not know exactly why, but binding occurs when 2 or more stimulus are percieved as coming from the same location. For example, people with damage in the parietal lobe often fail to recognize where stimulus is coming from or actually is, so they also have problems with binding.	experience of self?
How do the two hemipheres of the Forebrain communicate with each other?	The neurons communicate between the hemispheres through two axon bundles, the corpus callosum and the anterior commissure.	CC and AC
What are Laminae, which layers do they consist of and what is the purpose of these layers?	The neocortex has six laminae, consisting in total of between 10-14 billion neurons, which are layers of cellbodies that are separated by fibres. The Laminae vary in thicknes and prominence in different areas of the brain, depending on the purpose of that area. In some areas they may be completely absent. Layer I has very few neuronsLayer II the external granular layer;Layer III the external pyramidal layer; Layer IV the internal granular layer; Layer V the internal pyramidal layer; Layer VI the multiform, or fusiform layer.Functionally, the layers of the cerebral cortex can be divided into three parts. - The supragranular layers consist of layers I to III. The supragranular layers are the primary origin and termination of intracortical connections, which are either associational (i.e., with other areas of the same hemisphere), or commissural (i.e., connections to the opposite hemisphere, primarily through the corpus callosum). The supragranular portion of the cortex is highly developed in humans and permits communication between one portion of the cortex and other regions.- The internal granular layer, layer IV, receives thalamocortical connections, especially from the specific thalamic nuclei. This is most prominent in the primary sensory cortices.- The infragranular layers, layers V and VI, primarily connect the cerebral cortex with subcortical regions. These layers are most developed in motor cortical areas. The motor areas have extremely small or non-existent granular layers and are often called "agranular cortex". Layer V gives rise to all of the principal cortical efferent projections to basal ganglia, brain stem and spinal cord. Layer VI, the multiform or fusiform layer, projects primarily to the thalamus.	granular layers, pyramidal layer, fusiform layer. Communication, sensory, Motor.
Directional glossary Dorsal = ? Ventral=? Anterior=? Posterior=? Superior=? Interior=? Lateral=? Medial=? Ipsi=? Contra=? Horisontal plane=? Saggital plane =? Coronal (frontal) plane =?	Dorsal - backVentral- frontAnterior - toward the frontPosterior - toward the backSuperior - above another partInferior - below another partLateral- toward the side, away from the midlineMedial - toward the side, toward the midline, Ipisi - the same (Ipisilateral= on the same side)Contralateral - opposite (Contralateral = on opposite side(s))Horisontal plane- view of the brain through the middle horisontally or dorsal-ventrically, (fig. 2) Saggital plane- through the middle vertically, (fig. 1)Coronal (frontal) plane- through the middle from top to bottom. (fig. 3)
Why are addictive things addictive?	addictive activites, such as sex or gambling, or addictive substances, such as sugar, alcohol and certain drugs, affect areas which have axons that directly or indirectly increase the release of dopamine and norepinephrine into the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens controls in part what we like, but more importantly, what we want. This is why addicted people can want something they dont necessarily like anymore, such as drugs.	Nucleus accumbens
What are the main endocrine glands int he endocrine system and what are their main functions?	IN BRAIN 1. Hypothalamus produces oxytocin and vasopressin/antidiuretic hormone which it sends to the posterior pituitary (part of the Pituitary gland) which sends the hormone into the bloodstream. 2. The anterior pituitary (other part of the Pituitary gland) creates six types of hormones. Their release is controlled by the Hypothalamus, which releases releasing hormones which stimulates or inhibits the release of different hormones from the anterior pituitary. - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - controls parts of the adrenal cortex - Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) - controls parts of thyroid gland - Prolactin - controls parts of mammary glands - Somatotroping/ growth hormone (GH) - promotes growth in the body - Gonadotropins such asFollicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - Luteininzing hormone (LH) - controls parts of the gonads 3. Pineal gland - in brain releases melatonin IN THROAT Parthyroid glands, Thyrid gland, Thymus - releases Thyroxine, Triidothyronine, Parathyroid hormone, Thymos IN ABDOMEN Adrenal gland, Kidney, Pancreas - releases somatomedins, cortisol, corticosterone, epinephrine, norepinephrine, insulin, renin IN REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS Ovaries, Placenta (in females) Testis (in males) - glucagon, estrogen, progesterone, androgens	Brain, hypothalamus, pinal gland, pituitary glands Throat, hyroid, parathyroid, thymus Abdomen, Adrenal gland, Kidney, pancreas Repoduction Ovaries, placents, testis.
What is the neurotransmitter aminoacid?	amino acids - acids which contain an amine group (NH2)glutamate, GABA, glycine, aspartate
What is the neurotransmitter monoamines?	monoamines - chemicals formed by a change in certain amino acids.
What are the neurotransmitters neuropeptides?	neuropeptides/neuromodulators - chains of aminoacids. Endorphins, substance P, neuropeptide Y etc Neuropeptides are different because they are created in the cell body and not in the presynaptic terminals, like other neurotransmitters. They are also released by dendrites, not by the axon terminals, as other neurotransmitters. Neuropeptides also require repeated depolarization to be released. Neurons therefore release them seldom but in vast amounts. They also spread to many other neurons, which other neurotransmitters do not, which only cover receptors of the postsynaptic cell. This gives them a long lasting effect of up to 20 minutes or more. Neuropeptides are important for hunger, thirst, intense pain and other long term changes in behaviour.
What are the neurotransmitters acetylcholine?	They are similar to amino acids, but include an N(CH3) instead of an NH2 amine group. indoleamines= serotonincatecholamines (are called this because their molecule has one catechol group and one amine group) = dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephine
What is the neurotransmitter Nitric Oxide?	Nitric oxide (NO) is the only known neurotransmitter in gas form. Is released by many small, local neurons. Neurons release NO when they are stimulated to increase bloodflow to their brain area.
What are the neurotransmitters purine?	A type of chemicals such as adenosine and several of its derivates. ATP, adenosine etc
What is the propagation of the action potential and salatory conduction?	When the action potential occurs, it occurs in one part of the axon (such as the axon hillock in the motor neuron) . It then travels down the axon, by the membrane regenerating the action potential at each new point (the nodes of Ranvier). This process of rebirthing is called propagation of the action potential. This can be easily described by the action potential giving birth to a new action potential at each node of Ranvier along the axon. Therefore the action potential has the same strength in the beginning of the axon as at the end. The axon has a possibility of sending action potential in both ways, but it does not send them "backwards" because these parts are still in their refractory period. This process of jumping from node to node is called salatory conduction.
In short, what is Phrenology?	Phrenology, started by Franz Gall, who concluded that different personality traits could be read by looking at the head, which had different shapes and sizes depending on the brain strucuture beneath. This method is not used today.
How strong is the correlation between brain size and intelligence? Are men more intelligent than women? Why/why not?	-Today, most studies using MRI scans find a correlation between brain size and intelligence of typically 0.3 -On average, men have larger brains than women but equal IQ. Even if the brain size differs between men and women, women have more and deeper sulci , which is the grey matter that covers the brain. Because of this, the surface of the brain is approx equal size.
What is thought to be the main cause of propopagnosia?	Face recognition occurs in many brain areas, including parts of the occipital cortex, the prefrontal cortex, and the fusiform gyrus of the inferial temporal cortex. Damage to any part of these areas can cause prosopagnosia, which is the inability to recognize faces. Some people are always bad at recognising faces because they are born with a shortage of connections to the fusiform gyrus. Prosopagnosia doesn't concern memory or vision, but something specifically related to facial recognition. The fusiform gyrus always reacts to faces, indicating that that is its specific purpose.
On average, how many neurons does the human brain contain?	The human brain contains approx 100 billion neurons.
What is Santiago Ramon y Cajals claim to fame?	Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-1934) used newly developed stain techniques to show a small gap separating the tips of one neurons fibres from the surface of the next neuron, ie showing synapses and synaptic clefts.
What does the membrane of a neuron look like?	- All parts of a neuron are covered by a membrane about 8nm thick. - This membrane consists of two layers, one of phospholid molecules (containing chains of fatty acids and a phosphate group). - Embedded among the phospholid molecules are cylindrical protein molecules (protein channels) through which various chemicals can pass. The purpose of these protein molecules is to control the flow of chemicals between the inside and the outside of the cell. Because of this it is said that the membrane is selectively permeable. This means that some chemicals can pass through the mebrane more easily than others can.	8nm, phospholid molecules, protein channels, selectively permeable.
What different molecules can cross the membrane barrier, and when can they pass?	1. Oxygen, carbon dioxide, urea, and water can always cross the mebrane barrier freely. 2. most electrically charged ions and molecules cannot cross the barrier at all. 3. ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, and chloride, can cross into the neuron via membrane channels (or gates) that are sometimes open and sometimes - - sodium or potassium can not enter or exit the nerve when the membrane is resting, because the protein channels are closed. Stimulation of the nerve causes them to open. closed. Stimulation of the nerve causes them to open. closed. Stimulation of the nerve causes them to open.
What does the sodium-potassium pump do?	The sodium-potassium pump repeatedly transports three sodium ions out of the cell and putting two potassium ions into it. Because of this pump, sodium ions are over 10 times more concentrated outside the mebrane than inside it, and potassium ions are more concentracted inside the membrane than outside it. Protein and chloride ions also exist inside the cell, where they are negatively charged.
1, What is an electrical gradient? 2, What is the natural state of the neurons interior? 3, Why does the resting potential exist?	1, A nerves natural state is resting. When a message passes through the neuron this is a disturbance. When the nerve is resting, i.e. without any outside disturbance, the mebrane surrounding the cell maintains an electrical gradient (aka polarization). An electrical gradient means a different electrical charge between the inside and the outside of the cell. The barrier between this charge difference is the membrane 2, Inside the cell the charge is slightly negative due to negatively charged proteins inside. The difference in voltage in a resting neuron from its outside surroundings is called the resting potential. Typically, a neurons interior has a negative charge of about -70 millivolts (mV). 3, The resting potential exists so that the neuron can respond very rapidly. The resting potential is therefore always stable until the neuron is stimulated. Neuron stimulation occurs at synapses.	Different electrical charges, negative, rapid response
What is a graded potential?	Very small neurons do not have axons, these are called unipolar neurons. They can only communicate with their closest neighbours, and are therefore called local neurons. Because they have no axons they do not follow the all or none law. Instead, when they recieve information the info has graded potential. This means that the membrane potential varies in magnitude depending on the intensity of the stimulus.	Varying potential.
What is spatial stimulation and how does it affect EPSP?	Spatial stimulation creates multiple EPSP by stimulating several areas at once. This eventually causes action potential.
How does a cell Communicate? 5 steps	1. The neuron creates neurotransmitters. (Creates messenger) 2. In the synapse, in the presynaptic terminal, calcium enters the cell and causes release of neurotransmitters from the terminals, a process called -exocytosis- into the synaptic cleft. (Sends messenger) 3. The neurotransmitters attach to receptors in the postsynaptic cell and alter the activity of that neuron. Receptors can produce 2 effects, iontropic effects or metabotropic effects These effects are transmitter gated or ligand-gated , i.e. they open when they come in contact with a transmitter or a ligand, which is a type of chemical that binds to another chemical. (Receives messenger) 4. the neurotransmitters detach from the receptors and are reuptaken by transporter protein. (Messenger detaches, message recieved) 5. Postsynaptic cell releases retrograde transmitters that slow further release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell. These are called autoreceptors. (Message recieved, no more messengers please).	Create messenger, send messenger, receives messenger. Messenger detaches, messenger received, no more messengers Please
Where in the neuron are different neurotransmitters created?	Smaller neurotransmitters are created in the axon terminals neuropeptides (strings of amino acids that cause long term stimulation) are created in the cell body
Neurotransmitters can generate 2 different kinds of effects in the postsynaptic nerve. What are their names, functions and how do they work?	3.1 Iontropic effects - -fast receptors that absorb neurotransmitter information in under 1 ms, halflife of ca 5ms. -suitable for sending quick information, such as vision or auditory information. -Rely on glutamate or GABA to work 3.2 Metabotropic effects - - take over 30ms to emerge after release of the neurotransmitter. last up to a few seconds but sometimes longer. - Rely mostly on dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and sometimes glutamate and GABA. - Metabotrpic effects stimulate G protein to travel further into the cell, sending the neurotransmitters message further into the cell, causing it to spread further than a message uptaken by an iontropic receptor. Metabotrpic effects control slower things such as taste, smell and pain and also arousal, attention, pleasure and emotion	Iontropic, metabotropic
What are vesicles? What is MAO?	When presynaptic cells create neurotransmitters, they store them in vesicles until they are ready to be sent. The exception to this rule is NO (nitric oxide, a gas) , because this is always released as soon as it is formed. Sometimes the neurotransmitters seretonine, dopamine or norepinephrine become to many, so they are broken down by Monoamine oxidase (MAO). They are broken down and turn into inactive chemicals. Depression medicine mostly inhibits MAO.
How does depression medicine work?	neurotransmitters such as seretonine, dopamine or norepinephrine are stored ij excess in presynaptic vesicles. When they become to many, they are broken down by Monoamine oxidase (MAO). They are broken down and turn into inactive chemicals. Depression medicine mostly inhibits MAO, thus creating more serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine .
1. What are hormones? 2. What are their purpose? 3. What different types of hormones are there?	1. A chemical made by cells in one body part and transported to another bodypart via the blood to influence that part. Hormones attach to membrane receptors and activate a second messenger for longer lasting effect, much like metabotropic synapses 2. The purpose of hormones is to coordinate long lasting changes in multiple parts of the body. 3. There are different types of hormones protein hormones and peptide hormones. (made from chains of aminoacids).
What are: 1. Neurotransmitters? 2. Neuropeptides? 3. Hormones?	1. Neurotransmitters -> communicate with intended receptors of postsynaptic cell 2. Neuropeptides -> similar to neurotransmitters but they spread to many cells within the brain 3. Hormones -> spreads to all cells that can admit them via the bloodstream. Are part of the endocrine system.
What are the 4 fundamental forces of the universe?	gravity, electromagnetism, the strong nuclear force and the weak nuclear force.
What is the purpose of the Thalamus?	The Thalamus sends information to the Cerebral cortex.
What does the Basal ganglia do? And where is it?	Basal Ganglia is in the subcortial forebrain and controls movement.
What does the Limbic system do and where is it found? what structures make up the limbic system?	Limbic system, which is found in the subcortical forebrain, forms a border around the brainstem - The limbic system controls motivation and emotion, such as eating and drinking, sex, anxiety and aggression. The limbic system is composed of the olfactory bulb, the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the amygdala and the cingulate gyrus of the Cerebral cortex.
What does MAO stand for?	Monoamino oxidase. MAO breaks down unused neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine
what is exocytosis?	When the presynaptic terminals release neurotransmitters from the vesicles into the synaptic cleft.
which substances are most commonly known to affect male fetal development?	Certain substances can affect male development in the early fetal development, such as alcohol, marijuana, haloperiodol (an antipsychotic) and cocaine.
How do sex hormones affect the brain early in life, by binding receptors to areas in the brain?	1. Sex hormones early in life bind receptors to the hypothalamus, amygdala and some other brain areas. 2. By doing this, they generate anatomical and pyshiological differences between sexes. One Example of this is the sexually dimorphic nucleaus in the anterior hypothalamus which is larger in males than in females and contributes to control of male sexual behaviour. Parts of the female hypthalamus creates cyclical hormones release instead, ie the menstrual cycle.
How do the activating effects of sex hormones affect men?	levels of testosterone correlate with sexual arousal and drive to seek sexual partners. Men in a platonic relationship on average have lower testoerone levels than single men of the same age. This has two possible explanations 1. Men in a stable relationship do not need to find a partner, so their testosterone levels drop. or 2. Men with lower testosetone levels are more likely to get married. Sum summarum is that testoserone is related to seeking partners. Men with high levels of testoresone tend to continue seeking partners, even after marriage. Decreases in testosterone decrease sexual activity in men.
How does male testosterone cause an erection?	The male erection is caused by testosterone that increases the release of Nitric Oxide (NO) NO facilitates the hypothalamic neurons important for sexual behaviour and increases blood flow to the penis.
How does the female menstrual cycle work?	1. The womans hypothalamus and pituitary gland interact with the ovaries to produce the menstrual cycle, a periodic variation in hormones and fertility over the course of ca 28 days. 2. After menstruation, the anterior pituitary gland releases follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) which makes a growth of a follicle in the ovary. The follicle then takes care of the ovum (egg cell) and produces types of estrogen, such as estradiol. 3. Over time, the follicle builds up more receptors to FSH, and therefore creates more estradiol. 4. Enough Estradiol causes a sudden surge of Luteinzing hormone (LH) and FSH and LH together cause the follice to release an ovum (period). 5. When the follicle has released the ovum, it creates progesterone, which prerpares uterus for a fertilized ovum, and inhibits further release of LH. 6. Toward the end of the menstrual cycle, FSH, LH and progestorone all decline. If the ovum is not fertilized, the lining of the uterus is cast of (menstruation) and the cycle beings again. If the ovum is fertalized, levels of estradiol and progestorone increase throughout the pregnancy.
What causes nausea during pregnancy?	high levels of estradiol and progestorone cause fluctuating activity at the serotonin 3 receptor (aka 5HT3) which is responsible for nausea.
Where is Oxytocin created and what purpose does this hormone have?	1.Oxytocin, a hormone released by the pituitary gland, is also important for reproductive behaviour. 2.Oxytocin stimulates contractions of the uterus during birthing and stimulates the mammary gland to release milk.3.Oxytocin is released after an orgasm, and is responsible for a feeling of relaxation and lowered anxiety. 4.Oxytocin also facilitates formation of pair bonds between both mating partners and mother and baby. Women with higher oxytocin levels during pregnancy spend more time looking at, talking to and interacting with their baby after birth.
How does a womans brain change its reaction to estradiol during late pregnancy and what effects does this change create?	Her brain increases its sensitivity to estradiol in the areas responsible for maternal behaviour, which increases the attention to their children after delivery. Estrdiol increases activity in the medial preoptic area and anterior hypothalamu
Which three hormones does the female body release high doses of late in the pregnancy?	Late in the pregnancy, the female body releases large amounts of estradiol, oxytocin and prolactin.
What does Prolactin do?	Prolactin - stimulates aspects of maternal behaviour, as well as milk production. In species where the father is also part of raising children, several hormones are released to raise his paternal behaviour also.
Where is Vasopressin synthesized and secreted, and what is its purpose?	Vasopressin synthesized by the hypothalamus and secreted by the posterior pituitary gland. It aids long-term pair bonds in species. Lack of vasopressin decreases pair bonds and caring for recent mates.
What consequences do smelly babies have when they are born, and why do new mothers put up with their smelliness?	Babies give off chemicals that stimulates the females vomeronasal organ, which responds to pheromones. Babies pheromones strangely enough stimulate aggressive behaviour that interferes with maternal behaviour. In a mother that has just given birth, has a primed medial preoptic area, which overrides the aggressive behaviour caused by the pheromones. However, for a mother without hormonal priming will reject the young until she has gotten used to their smell.
What effect do sex hormones have on a mammalian fetus?	In the absence of sex hormones, an infant mammal develops female looking external genitalia. Adding testosterone shifts development to a male development.
What is the major histocompatability complex?	Body odor relates to some of the same genes that control the immune system. Research has found that females tend to be less sexually responsive to a man whos immune genes, and therefore body odor, are similar to her own. Avoiding mean with similar odor to her own may be a mechanism to avoid inbreeding. This is the major histocompatability complex.
What is Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)?	(CAH) is caused by an overdevelopment of the adrenal glands before birth. the overdeveloped adrenal glands cause an overproduction of testosterone in females, causing them to be partly masculinized.Normally, the adrenal gland has a negative feedback relationship with the pituitary gland. The pituitary creates and secretes adrencorticotrpic hormone (ACTH) which stimulates the adrenal gland to produce hormones. The adrenal then releases cortisol back to pituitary to decrease the release of ACTH. But some people have a genetic limitation in their ability to produce coritsol. This inhibitis the decrease in the release of ACTH from the pituitary gland, and thus causing the adrenal gland to secrete larger amounts of other hormones also, such as testosterone.
what is Androgen insensitivity aka testicular feminization?	Androgren insensitivity/ testicular feminization means having a genetic XY pattern but the gential appearence of a female. 1. people with this condition produce normal amounts of androgens, including testosterone, but they do not have the androgen receptor that enables androgens to activate genes in the cells nucleus. 2. As a consequence of this, the cells are insensitive to androgens, and the development is thus the same as if testosterone levels had been very low. This can lead to everything from an abnormally small penis, to complete external female genitalia. 3. The condition is not noticed until puberty, when the female doesnt menstruate, because her inner genital organs are male, ie testis instead of ovaries and uterus, and the vagina leads to nothing but skin. Pubic hair is also absent or sparse, because androgens contribute to development of pubic hair for both males and females.
What is Cloacal exstrophy?	Cloacal exstrophy - a defect of pelvis development.
How should a child with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) be treated, according to most caregivers? (4 things)	1. - Be completely honest with the intersexed patient and the family, and do nothing without their informed consent. 2. - Identify the child as male or female based mainly on the predominant external appearence. That is, no bias toward calling every intersex child female.3. - rear the child as consistently as possible, be prepared that the child may be sexually orientated toward males, females, both or neither.4. - do not perform surgery to reduce the ambiguous penis/clitoris to the size of a normal clitoris, as it removes or strongly disabls all erotic sensations. Such surgery should only be performed if requested for in adulthood.
What is a natrual pubetal sex change caused by?	5a - reductase 2 is an enzyme that converts testosterone into dihydrotestosterone, a more powerful type of testosterone that affects the development of male external genitalia. In some fetuses, this enzyme fails to be produced, causing a male development ina body with female genitalia. Once the child enters puberty, the onset of testosterone creates growth of penis and scrotum
What biological differences can be found between gay and straight men? (HINT: 7 things, bones, cortex hemispheres, amygdala, location, commisure, SCN, INAH-3)	1. heterosexual men have longer bones in their arms, legs and hands than homosexual men. The opposite is true for women (homosexual women have longer bones on average). This occurs already before puberty, but is not true for all people. 2. In hetrosexual women and homosexual men, the left and right hemisphere of the cerebral cortex are of nearly equal size, whereas the right hemisphere is a few percent larger in heterosexual males. Homosexual females are somewhere inbetween the heterosexual female and heterosexual male brain. 3. Also, in hetero women and homo men the left amygdala has more widespread connections than the right amygdala, whereas for hetero men the right amygdala has a wider spread in conncetions. Again, for homo women, they are intermediate. 4. When it comes to location, men tend to describe directions in terms of north, east, west and south, whereas women and gay men tend to describe more using landmarks. On average, gay men have a better memory for landmarks. 5. The anterior commisure is on average larger in straight females than straight males. It is also larger, sometimes even larger than womens, in gay men. 6. The superchiasmatic nucleaus (SCN) is also larger in gay men than straight men. The SCN controls cyrcadian rythms. 7. The third interstital nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus (INAH-3) is generally more than twices large in straight men as in women and gay men. The area also has more andgrogen receptors in men than in women, and probably plays a role in sexual behaviour, but what it does is uncertain. So the INAH-3 is smaller in gay men than in straight men. These differecnes prove that sexual orientation is not an arbitriary descision, it is an integral part of a person.
What does the term "brain plasticity" refer to?	brain plasticity - describes that the brain is constantly changing, within its limits.
When does the human CNS begin to develop?	The human CNS begins to develop when an embryo is about 2 weeks old.
What does the brain weigh at birth? At one year old? In adultood?	At birth the average human brain weighs ca 350 grams. At 1 year of age it weighs approx 1 000 g, an adult brain weighs approx 1200-1400 grams.
What is proliferation?	1. Proliferation - the production of new cells.
What are stem cells?	Early in development, cells start moving away from their initial places and become neurons and glia, but those that stay as cells are known as 'stem cells'.
What is cell migration and which chemicals create this effect? What does a deficit in these chemicals lead to?	migration - after proliferation and differantion into either neurons or glia, cells migrate (ie they move). Neurons migrate at different speeds and some of them reach their destinations at early adulthood. Chemicals immunoglobins and chemokines guide neuron migration. A deficit of these chemicals leads to impaired migration, decreased brain size decreased axon growth and mental retardation. An overproduction of immunoglobins has been linked to some cases of schizofrenia.
What is differentiation?	Differentiation - this is the process where the cell forms its axons and denrites and connects to what it needs to connect to.
What is myelination?	myelination - process where glia form fatty cheaths that accelerate transmission through vertebrate axons, ie myelin sheaths are created. The myelination process can take decades to complete.
What is synaptogenesis?	The final stage of brain development is synaptogenesis, which is the development of synapses. Process begins before birth but continues throughout life, as neurons form new synapses and discard old ones. However, the process does slow down in most older adults, as does the formation on new dendritic branches.
What are the five stages of cell development?	1. proliferation - neurons are created 2. differentiation - neurons from axons and dendrites 3. migration - neurons migrate to their correct places in the brain 4. myelination - myelin sheaths are formed by glia around the neurons axon 5. synaptogenesis - neurons create synapses and connect to other neurons. Continues throughout life
New neurons do not form in the adult brain, except in two places. Which and why?	Olfactory receptors have a half-life of about 90 days. They are repleced with cells from the nose. Becuase the stem cells in the nose remain immature throughout life, when an olfactory receptor dies, the nose cell divides and replaces the dying olfactory bulb. Also the hippocampus has a production of new neurons, and novel learning helps keep more of these new neurons alive, which create better memory. However, new neurons do not form in the adult cerebral cortex. and very very few form after birth.
Describe the work and conclusions of Paul Weiss. Was Weiss Wrong?	Paul Weiss (1924) attached an extra leg to a salamander, and waited for axons to attach to the muscles. They did, and the new leg moved perfectly with the leg next to it. Weiss proposed that neurons send many different messages, but the appropriate muscle only responded to the message that it was supposed to. Weiss was wrong.
Now describe the work of Roger Sperry. What conclusion did he draw? Was he right?	Roger Sperry severed the optic nerve in a newt between the optic tectum and the eye ball. He then turned the eye ball 180 degrees. When the axons reconnected to the eyeball, they connected to where they would have been if the eye was the right way round. Therefore, the newt aw the world upside down and backward, ie left was seen as right and vice versa. This made himconclude that axons always connect to their right places, presumably following a chemical trail. This is actually the true case.
On average, how many genes does a human have?	A human has about 30 000 genes.
What is Neural Darwinism?	Neural Darwinism - initially, in the development of the nervous system, we start with more neurons than we keep. A selection process then keeps some neurons and discards others. The most succesful axons and combinations survive, and the others die.
How does the CNS decide which neurons to keep and what happens to them?	The CNS forms more neurons than it needs, and attaches them to muscles. When a synapse has attached to a muscle, that muscles delivers a protein called Nerve growth factor (NGF) which promotes survival and growth of the axon. An axon that does not recieve NGF degenerates and its cell body dies.
What is the difference between apoptosis and necrosis?	apoptosis - the neuron kills itself if it doesnt recieve NGF within a specific time period. necrosis - a neuron dies caused by an injury or a toxic substance.
Which chemicals are most abundant in the adult cerebral cortex?Neu	Neurotrophins 1. Neural growth factor NGF, which is a chemical that promotes the survival and activity of neurons. 2. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF is the most abundant neurotrophin in the adult cerebral cortex.
What is fetal alochol syndrome? What symptoms does it have? What is it caused by?	Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition marked by hyperactivity, impulsiveness, difficulty mainting attention, varying degrees of mental retardation, motor problems, heart defects, and facial abnormalities. Adults wth fetal alcohol syndrome also have a higher risk of substance abuse and other psychiatric disorders, such as depression. FAS is is thought to be caused by that alcohol suppresses the release of glutamate, the brain excitatory transmitter, and enhances the activity of GABA, the main inhibitory transmitter. Because of these two effects, neurons recieve less excitation and less neurotrophins than normal, and thus undergo apoptosis.
what is focal hand dystonia? what is it caused by?	focal hand dystonia aka musicians cramp. The area of the somatosensory cortex taking care of fingers grows, so that the areas for each finger overlaps and the person cannot separate which finger is stimulated. Fingers become clumsy, fatigue easily and make involuntary movements. The cause is extensive reorganisation of the sensory thalamus and cortex so that touch responses to one finger overlap those of another finger.
What is a closed head injury?	Closed head injury is a sharp blow to the head from an accident, assault or other sudden trauma that does not actually puncture the brain or the skull. This is the most common cause of brain damamge in young people.
There are two different types of strokes. What are they and what is the difference between them?	Ischemia - the most common type of stroke. It is a result of a blood clot or other obstruction in an artery. In an ischemia, the neurons are deprived of blood and therefore of oxygen and glucose supplies. Less common type is a hemorrhage - result of a ruptured artery. The neurons are flooded with blood and excess oxygen, calcium and other chemicals.
What are the main problems caused by a stroke?	Stroke can lead to many problems, including: 1. edema - the accumulation of fluid in an area of the brain, which increases preassure on the brain and hightens the risk of more strokes. 2. The sodium-pottasium pump impairment, which causes a build-up of sodium inside the neuron. The excess positive ions disable the metabolism in the mitochondria, which kills the neurons.
What is tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)?	tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) - a drug which is used to break up blood clots.
What is the penumbra?	penumbra - the region surrounding the immidiate stroke damage.
What is the most effective (and legal) way of minimizing the effects of a stroke?	One way of trying to minimize the effects of stroke is to cool the brain for a fw days, ca 3 days after the stroke, to 33-36 degrees. ANother things that works is injecting omega-3 fatty acids, which is a major component of cell membranes, and help to block apoptosis and other neural damage.
What are collateral sprouts?	Collateral sprouts - are postsynaptic sprouts which surviving axons grow to compensate for synapses left vacant by a damaged axon.
What is diaschisis?	Diaschisis - refers to the decreased activity of the surviving neurons after damage to other neurons.
Which two circadian rhythms do our bodies follow?	The Endogenous circannual rhythm - our bodily clock that changes with the seasons. The Endogenous circadian rhythm - Internal clock lasting for about a day
What is a free running rhythm?	free running rhythm - a circadian rhythm that occurs when no stimuli resets or alters it.
What is a zeitgeber? What are the main zeitgebers for land and marine animals?	A stimulus that resets circadian rhythms is called a zeitgeber, meaning time-giver, Light is the dominant zeitgeber for land animals. For many marine animals, the tides are the main zeitgeber. For land animals, other zitgebers are exercise, noise, meals and temperature of the environment.
what is jet lag?	jet lag - a disruption of circadian rhythms due to crossing time zones
What part of the brain controls the circadian rhythm and body temperature?	The biological clock depends on part of the hypothalamus, called the suprachiasmatic nucleus, or the SCN. The name comes from its loction just above (supra) to the optic chiasm. The SCN provides the main control of the circadian rhythm and body temperature. Even if the neurons of the SCN are removed and planted in external tissue, they continue to generate action potentials in their circadian rhythm. The rhthm comes from the cells itself, and not from the body they are in, shown by transplants.
How does the human SCN recieve information about its main zeitgeber?	A branch of the optic nerve, the retinohypothalamic path, leads from the retina, close to the nose, to the the suprachaismatic nucleus, and thus tells the SCN when it is light or dark outside. It does not respond to fast changes in light but slowly over minutes of hours, and is therefore not used for sight but only for directing the SCN.
Which two proteins are created by our genes to control sleepiness and wakefulness, according to studies on fruit flies?	Two genes in our DNA creates 2 kinds of protein, per and tim. These protein are small in amount early in the moring and increae in amount across the day. By evening, they reach such an amount that they make the fly sleepy. The high doses lso feed back to the genes, telling them to no longer produce per or tim during the night.
How does the endocrine system affect our circadian rhythm?	The SCN regulate waking and sleeping by controlling activity levels in other brain areas including the pineal gland, which is an endocrine gland located just posterior to the thalamus. The pineal gland releases hormone melatonin, which influences both circadian and cirannual rhythms. The pineal glad releases most melatonin during the night, making us sleepy. Thats why, even when we change time zone, we feel sleepy at night because our pineal gland is still generating melatonin.
Who first introduced the concept of the circadian rhythm, and what was his main conclusion?	The concept of the circadian rhythm, or biological clock, was introduced by curt richter in 1967. He reported that the biological clock is insensitive to most frms of external interferance, including food and water deprivation,x-rays, tranquilizers, anasthesia, alcohol, lack of oxygen etc. It is a robust structure that does not change very easily.
What defines a coma?	1.coma is an extended period of unconciousness caused by head trauma, stroke or disease. 2.It is not possible to awaken someone in a coma. 3. A person in a coma has a low level of brain activity that remains more or less constant throughout the day. 4. The person shows little or no response to stimuli. 5. A typical coma lasts weeks and ends in either death or recovery.
What defines a vegitative state, and how does it differ from a minimally concious state?	1.Vegitative state is when a person alters between sleep and moderate arousal, but even during arousal the person shows no awareness of their surroundings. 2.The person shows physical reaction to stimuli such as pain, but does not speak or respond to speech, or shows any purposeful activity. 3.Some people in this state probably do have some sort of cognitive activity. 4. A minimally concious state is one stage higher with breif periods of purposeful actions and a limited amount of speech comprehension. 5.A vegitative or minimally concious state can last for months or years.
What is Brain death?	Brain death - a condition with no sign of brain activity and no response to any stimuli, at all. Normally, a lack of brain activity for 24 hours is needed to pronounce brain death, when most people consider it ethical to remove life support.
What is a polysomnograph and what is it used for?	polysomnograph - a combination of EEG and eye-movement records, recording dirrefent stages of sleep.
What are the differences between sleep stages 1-4? How is REM sleep different fro NREM?	Sleep cycles 1-4 are differed by slowing down of waves. Sleep stage 1 has fast waves and little eye movement, sleep stage 2 has slower waves as well as sleep spindles and K- complexes. stages 3-4 are defined by slow alpha waves. Rapid Eye movement sleep or REM sleep has fast alpha waves and large changes in eye movement. Stages which are non REM sleep are known as non rem, or NREM sleep.
What does the pontmesencephalon do?	The pontomesencephalon maintains arousal during wakefullness and increases responsiveness to novel and challenging tasks. Stimulation of the pontomesencephalon awakens a sleeping indivudal or increases alterness in someone already awake.
What does the locus coeruleus do? Where is the locus coeruleus?	The locus coeruleus is a small strucuture in the pons and is mostly inactive. It only emits burts of impulses in response to meningful events, especially those which produce emotional arousal. Axons from the locus coeruleus release norepinephrine throughout the cortex, thus strengthening the storage of recent memories and increases wakefullness. The locus coeruleus is inactive during sleep.
Why do antihistamines make you sleepy? Which antihistamines do not make you sleepy?	histamines are neurotransmitters which produce ecxitatory effects throughout the brain. Histamines are released during arousal and alterness. Because of this, antihistamine meds make you drowsy and sleepy. However, antihistamines which do not cross the blood brain barrier do not have this effect.
What is the puropse of Oxerin? What is the alternative term for orexin? Which part of the brain releases the substance?	The lateral and posterior hypothalamus releases neuropeptide transmitters called orexin OR hypocretin. This neurotransmitter is needed not to wake up, but to stay awake. Orexin is active until we fall asleep, and will make sleepiness if removed and alertness if introduced.
What part does GABA play in our sleep? How do they work?	the main inhibitory transmitter, GABA, is necessary for sleep also. During sleep, our neurons remain active, firing and also reacting to stimuli of sound and light. However, GABA inhibits the signal from spreading to other neurons and thus waking us up. It doesnt stop the neurons from firing, only from speading the message and waking up. This is difference between sleep and coma or vegitative states, during which the brain does not fire very much at all. Tranquilizers put people to sleep by facilitating GABA in the brain.
Repetition: What does each of these structures release, and what effect does their relase have?	Pontomesencephalon releases ACETYLCHLOLINE, GLUTAMATE which increases cortical arousal Locus Coeruleus releases NOREPINEPHRINE which increases information storage during wakefullness and suppresses rem sleep. Basal forebrain - excitatory cells release ACETYLCHOLINE which excites thalamus and cortex; increases learning, attention and shifts from NREM to REM - inhibitory cells release GABA Inhibits thalamus and cortex Hypothalamus releases histamines which increase arousal releases OREXIN which maintains wakefullness Dorsal raphe and pons releases serotonin which interupts REM sleep.
What is thought to be the original purpose for sleep?	The original function of sleep was to perserve energy.
What other purpose is sleep believed to have today?	Today, sleep also serves the function of brain restoration. During sleep, the release of GABA increases, so lack of sleep causes GABA to accumulate in neurons, which impairs concentration.
Why does caffeine have an arousing effect?	Caffine has an awakening effect by blocking the receptors for adenosine, a chemical which accumulates during wakefullness and increases drowsiness.
Why does sleep aid memory?	Sleep aids memory, because the brain replays the experience repeatedly during sleep, and therefore encodes it deeper in the conciousness.
What are sleep spindles?	Sleep spindles - waves of brain activity about 12-14 Hz, which are paticulary common during sleep stage 2. They indicate an exchange of information between the thalamus and the cerebral cortex. Sleep spindles increase in number after learning novel information. Intrestingly, number of sleep spindles per night correlates more than .7 with nonverbal IQ tests. Therefore, sleep spindles can predict IQ.
Why does caffeine have an arousing effect?	Caffine has an awakening effect by blocking the receptors for adenosine, a chemical which accumulates during wakefullness and increases drowsines
Why is REM sleep especially important for memory?	Hypothesis: REM is important for memory storage, especially for weakening innapropriate connections, in order to strenghen more needed synaptical connections
How does REM sleep change with age?	The amount of REM sleep gotten each night depends on age. Newborn babies (1-15 days) have approx 8 hours of REM each night, but it declines with age, to only an hour o two by adulthood.
Which Broadman areas are responsible for vision?	BA 17,18,19,37,20,7
Which Broadman areas are responsible for touch?	BA 1,2,3,5,7
Which Broadman areas are responsible for hearing?	BA 41,42
Which Broadman areas are responsible for movement?	BA 4,6
The brocas area cover which Broadman areas? What is the brocas area responsible for?	BA 44,45 The brocas area is responsible for the grammatical component of speech
Which Broadmans areas does wernickes area cover? What it wernickes area responsible for?	BA 39,40 wernickes area contains motor neurons responsible for the comprehension of speech
What is allostatsis? In which animals does it occur?	allostasis - refers to the adaptive way in which the body changes its set points depending on the situation. Much of this is controlled by the hypothalamus. I.e. the process of acheiving homestasis through physiological or behavioral change.
What does the term poikilothermic describe?	poikilothermic is a term which refers to animals such as amphibians, reptiles and most fish, whos body temperature matches the temperature of their environment.
What does the term homeothermic describe?	homeothermic is a term which decribes most mammals and birds, which use physiological mechanisms to maintain a nearly constant body temperature despite environmental temperature changes.
Why is our body temperature 37 degrees C?	Our body temperature of 37degrees is a stand off between being warmer, which is good for metabolism, muscles and being able to move fast, and saving proteins, which start dying at 40-41 degrees.
Which part of the brain regulates body temperature and how does it do it?	temperautre regulation in the body is controlled by the structure called preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus or POA/AH. The hypothalamus regulates the feeling of body temperature by its own temperature. In experiements, heating or cooling the ypothalamus causes the whole animal to act as if it is hot or cold. In part, temperature reglation is also controlled by temeprature receptors in the skin and spinal cord, but it depends mainly on the POA/AH.
How does the body create a fever?	1.When a foreign body enters the body, the immune system mobilises leukocytes (white blood cells) to fight it. 2.The leukocytes release small proteins called cytokines that attack the intruders. 3.Cytokines also stimulate the vagus nerve, which sends signals to the hypothalamus; increasing the release of the chemical prostaglandin, and this chemical causes higher body temperature when sick (i.e. fever). 4.The point is that an animal produces a fever in order to fight an infection.
How do humans perserve water when we are dehydrated?	When humans become dehydrated we conserve water by excreting more concentrated urine, decreasing sweating and other autonomic responses.
What is molarity?	molarity - measure of the number of particles per unit of solution, regardless of size of each particle.
Why can a fever be good and when is it bad?	Why fever? - certain bacteria grow less well in higher temperature - the immune system gets more enhanced activity by a fever. But a fever above 39 degrees does more harm than good, (killing proteins and neurons) and above 41 is life-threatening.
Which 2 different types of thirst do humans feel? What causes each one?	2 different types of thirst. 1. osmotic thirst - caused by eating salt 2. hypovelmic thirst - caused by loss of fluid, such as by bleeding or sweating.
What is osmotic thirst? How does osmotic preassure occur? what is it?	By eating salt, osmotic preassure occurs. This means salt collecting inside the cell membrane, causing it to shrink. The result is that osmotic pressure draws water from the cells into extracellular fluid. To compensate this loss of fluid, neurons trigger osmotic thirst , which restores normal fluid leveles. Part of the brain responsible for measuring saltiness in body fluids is the third ventricle, whose blood brain barrier is weak, in order to meassure the saltiness of the outside. Another strucuture is the OVLT (organum vasculosum laminae terminalis) and the subfornical organ (SFO). These strucutres then send this information to several parts of the hypothalamus, including the supraoptic nucleus and the paraventriculat nucleus (PVN), both strucutres which control the rate at which the posterior pituitary releases vasopressin.
What happens when the bodies sodium levels are low?	When the bodies sodium reserves are low, the adrenal gland produce the hormone aldosterone which causes kidneys, salivary glands and sweat gland to retain salts.
Which is the most common genetic reason for obesity?	The most common gene for obesity a mutated gene for the receptor to melanocortin, one of the neuropeptides resonsible for hunger. People with a mutation in that gene overeat and become obese from childhood.
What is syndromal obesity?	Syndromal obesity - is obesity which results from a medical condition or syndrome.
What is the definitions of anorexia and bulimia?	ANOREXIA NERVOSAWhen people refuse to eat enough food tht they need, for fear of becoming obese or losing control BULIMIA NERVOSAwhen the patientalternate between extreme dieting and binges of overeating.
What is sodium-specific hunger?	sodium-specific hunger - the need to consume not only water, but also salts, therefore the animal craves salty tastes.
what is lateralization?	lateralization - division of labour to either hemisphere. As the hemispheres communicate through the corpus callosum, we only really see evidence of lateralization when the corpus callosum is damaged.
What is the planum temporale? How does its strucutre differ between the hemispheres? Which lobe is it in?	The planum temporale - is larger in the left hemisphere in 65% of people. This is mainly true for people who are strongly righ handed. planum temporale is critical for speech comprehension. Is in the temporal lobe
what is the opic chiasm?	optic chiasm - area where the axons from each eye cross to the opposite side of the brain (literally means the optic cross).
In short, what is epilepsy?	repeated episodes of excessive synchronized neural activity, mainly because of decreased release of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA.
How does the Corpus Callosum develop?	Corpus callosum - matures gradually over the first 5-10 years of life. The development is not concerning the growth of new axons, but selecting some axons are discarding others (axonogenesis?) As with other parts of the brain, the corpus callosum generates more axons than it will eventually have in maturity.
What is a split-brain person?	split brain person - someone who for some reason does not have a functioning corpus callosum, and this their hemispheres work more or less independantly of each other.
what is williams syndrome? Cause? How does it affect patients?	williams syndrome - patient has mental retardation in many regards, but speak grammatically correct and fluently. It is caused by a deletion of several genes from chromosome 7, which leads to decreased gray matter, especially in areas related to visual processing. Affected people are poor at tasks related to numbers, visuospatial skills (e.g. copying a drawing) and spatial perception. They have low social anxiety but larger anxiety toward inanimate objects, potentially related to their larger than average amygdala.
What is Brocas Aphasia? How is their pronounciation? Speech comprehension? Contents of speech? Posible explanation?	Brocas Aphasia - brain damaged people who suffer impaired language production is called them having brocas aphasia, regardless of the lesion being in brocas area or not. poor pronounciation People with brocas aphasia are slow and awkward in all forms of expression, including writing, speaking and gesturing. impaired comprehension when meaning depends on complex grammar contents of speech mostly nouns and vebs omits closed slass words such as prepositions and other grammatical connectives. They can express open class words, such as verbs and nouns, but not closed class words such as conjunctions, prepositions etc One possible explanation is that speaking is hard, so the weakest elements of speech is automatically left out. The problem lies in word meanings, not prononciation.
What is aphasia?	aphasia - language impairment .
Where is Brocas area? Which BA?	Brocas area is in the left frontal cortex BA 44,45
Wernickes aphasia	Wernickes aphasia - wernickes area, located near the auditory cortex in top temporal lobe. characterized by poor language comprehension, and impaired ability to remember the names of objects. also known as fluent aphasia because the person can still speak smoothly. Typical characteristics of wernickes aphasia1. Articulate spech - fluent speech with no stops or interupptions, unimpaired pronounciation. 2. difficulty finding the right word - suffering from anomia and often use substitue made up words or describe when they encoutered that word. 3. poor language comprehension - have trouble understanding spoken and written speech. They have trouble with nouns and verbs as opposed to closed class words, which trouble those with brocas aphasia.
what is anomia?	difficulty recalling the names of objects
Which 2 different kinds of dyslexia are there and what characterizes them?	2 kinds of dyslexia dysphonetic dyslexia - have trouble sounding out words, so they try to memorize words as a whole, when they dont recognize a word they guess based on content. dyseiditic dylexia - fail to recognize words as a whole, they read slowly and have trouble with irregularly spelled words.
What is Dyslexia?	Dyslexia - a difficulty converting symbols (letters) into sounds.
What is spatial neglect?	Spatial neglect - damage to the right hemisphere which generates a tendency to ignore the left side of the body or left side of objects.
What is change blindness or innatentional blindness?	Change blindness or innatentional blindness - failing to see changes or strange objects in the visual field because you are not directing your attention at it.
what is a commonly found difference in brains of dyslexic people and other people?	Dylexic people are more likely to have a bilaterally symmetrical cerebral cortex, whereas in other people the planum temporale is larger in the left heisphere.
What is the poverty of the stimulus argument? What is one argument against it?	poverty of the stimulus argument - argues that children are born with language, all they need to do is fill in the words and details. the poverty of stimulus arguments proof of this is that children use complex grammar structures they have seldom heard. One argument against POS argument is that it is unlikely that a child is born knowing the grammars of all possible human languages.
What is a language aquisition device?	Noam Chomsky and Steven Pinker proposed that humans have a language aquisition device - i.e. a built in mechanism for aquiring language.
In short, what is the corpus callosum?	The corpus callosum is a set of axons connecting the two hemispheres of the brain
How do the hemispheres control the body? Are there any exceptions?	The left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex controls the contralateral side of the body and vice versa. Exception: both hemispheres controls the trunk and facial muscles. Taste and smell sensations are uncrossed also, i.e. each hemisphere recieves information from its ipsolateral side of the tongue and nose.
What is hypovelmic thirst?	When water levels are low, the body needs to replace not only water, but also sodium, or salts. This type of thirst is called hypovolemic thirst; meaning thirst based on low volume.
Why have cannabinoids been used on lab animals to reduce brain damage?	In laboratory animals cannabinoids have been successfullly used to reduce brain damage. The benefits are thought to be due to cannabinoids anti-oxiant or anti-inflammatory actions. They reduce cell loss.
In adults, what is the primary purpose of hormones?	In adults, hormones prime cells to release dopamine in response to sexual arousal.
How do fertility hormones, such as progestorone, affect females mating preferences?	hormones associated with fertility move womens mate preferences toward men who look and act more masculine.
Why do the subcortial areas have this name?	The subcortial areas Are called that because they are beneath the cerebral cortex and its ajoining areas.
Where are electrical synapses found and how do they differ from chemical synapses?	Electrical synapses 1. Are faster than all chemical synapses, have evolved in areas where excact syncrony between two cells is important. 2. In an electrical snyapse the cells membranes are in direct contact, an area called the gap junction. 3. electrical neurons almost act as if they were a single neuron, all the pores between them for sodium and other ions are always open.
What three different types of communication occurs in the body? Who do they each communicate with?	Neurotransmitters -> communicate with intended receptors of postsynaptic cell Neuropeptides -> they spread to many cells within the brain Hormones -> spreads to all cells that can admit them
What are vesicles?	An area in the presynaptic cell where neurotransmitters are stored.
What does MAO do? What does it stand for? How do antidepression medicine work?	Sometimes the neurotransmitters seretonine, dopamine or norepinephrine become to many, so they are broken down by Monoamine oxidase (MAO). They are broken down and turn into inactive chemicals. Depression medicine mostly inhibits MAO.
What are iontropic and metabotropic effects? What are the differences between them?	3.1 Iontropic effects - these are fast receptors that absorb neurotransmitter information in under 1 ms. effects have a halflife of ca 5ms. They are suitable for sending quick information, such as vision or auditory information. Rely on glutamate or GABA to work 3.2 Metabotropic effects - take over 30ms to emerge after release of the neurotransmitter. They last up to a few seconds but sometimes longer. Rely mostly on dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine and sometimes glutamate and GABA too. Metabotrpic effects stimulate G protein to travel further into the cell, sending the neurotransmitters message further into the cell, causing it to spread further than a message uptaken by an iontropic receptor. Metabotrpic effects control slower things such as taste, smell and pain and also arousal, attention, pleasure and emotion.
Describe the 5 steps of neuron communication?	1. The neuron creates chemicals that become neurotransmitters. Smaller neurotransmitters are created in the axon terminals and neuropeptides created in the cell body. 2. In the synapse, in the presynaptic terminal, calcium enters the cell and the calcium causes release of neurotransmitters from the terminals, a process called exocytosis into the synaptic cleft, which is the gap between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. 3. The neurotransmitters attach to receptors in the postsynaptic cell and alter the activity of that neuron. Receptors can produce 2 effects iontropic effects or metabotropic effects These effects are transmitter gated or ligand-gated , i.e. they open when they come in contact with a transmitter or a ligand, which is a type of chemical that binds to another chemical. 4. the neurotransmitters detach from the receptors and are reuptaken by transporter protein. 5. Postsynaptic cell releases retrograde transmitters that slow further release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell. These are called autoreceptors.
what is exocytosis?	Wen the presynaptic terminal expells neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
Why do humans sexually reproduce with each other?	sexual reproduction increases variation and therefore enables quick evolutionary adaptions to any change in the environment. It also corrects errors, if the disadvantageous gene is only found in one parent, it doesnt necessarily spread to the child.
Which 2 different effects do hormones have on the brain and body and when do they occur?	1. Organizing effects - have an indefinite effect and occur during sensitive stages of transition such as early in the lifespan, well before birth ca 3-4 months in pregnancy, and during puberty and menopause.They determine wether the brain and body will develop male or female characteristics, they therefore affect the external genitals and the hypothalamus. 2. Activating effects - are temporary activate a single particular response. and can ocur at any point in the lifespan.
What are steroid hormones? How do steroids afect us? What are sex hormones?	Steroid hormones - have 4 carbon rings and derive from cholesterol. Affect us in 3 ways 1. they bind to membrane receptors, like neurotransmitters, exerting rapid effects. 2. enter cells and activate certain kinds of portein in the cytoplasm. 3. bind to receptors that bind to chromosomes, where they activate or inactive specific genes. Sex hormones - estrogens, pregestorones and androgens, are a specific category of steroid hormones.Are released mostly by the gonads, i.e. testis and ovaries, and in a small part by the adrenal glands.
What is apoptosis?	Cell DEATH!!!!! dun-dun-duuuuuun !!!!
what are the chromosome sets for men and for women?	female - XX chromosomes male - XY chromosomes
What are autosomal chromosomes?	autosomal chromosomes - chromosomes without sexual definition
Which are the three main sex hormones and in which sex are they each most common?	Androgens - male hormones, because men have higher levels- example - testosterone Estrogens - female hormones, because females have higher levels example - estradiol Both sexes produce both hormones but at different levels. Progestorone - also a mainly female hormone, it prepares the uterus for implantation of a fertilized ovum and promotes the maintenance of pregnancy.
How do sex hormones mainly affect the brain?	sex hormones can increase or decrease apoptosis in the brain in various regions, causing certain areas of the brain to be smaller or larger in males and females. But sex hormones are not sole contributors to differences between men and women. For example, at least 3 genes on the Y chromosome, which is found only in men,are active in specific brain areas, and at least one gene in the X chromosome is active only in the female brain.
How do the prenatal genitals initially look? How does the male Y chromosome change them, 4 steps and end result?	Early in prenatal development, the fetus has both Mullerian ducts and Wolffian ducts, as well as primitive gonads. 1. However, the male Y chromosome includes the SRY gene (sex-determining region on the Y chromosome) which cause the prenatal gonads to form testes and sperm-producing organs. 2. The testes then form testoterone, which finishes the development into a male. 3. Testosterone causes Wolffian ducts to form into seminal vesicles (i.e. semen creators) and vas deferens (a duct from testis to penis). 4. Testosterone also produces MIH (Mullerian Inhibiting Hormone) which is a peptide hormone that degenerate the Mullerian ducts, which are the precursors of female genitals. End result of testosterone organisational effects are the male penis and scrotum.
Why do females develop differently? How do they develop?	They develop differently because Females do not have the SRY gene, and their gonads develop into ovaries and the wolffian ducts degenerate, and the mullerian ducts develop into female sex organs.
What is a coma? What brain actvity does a comatosed person have?	Coma - an extended period of unconciousness caused by head trauma, stroke or disease. It is not possible to awaken someone in a coma. A person in a coma has a low level of brain activity that remains more or less constant throughout the day. The person shows little or no response to stimuli. A typical coma lasts weeks and ends in either death or recovery.
What is the activation-synthesis hypothesis?	the activation-synthesis hypothesis hypothesises that a dream represents the brains efforts to make sense of sparse and distorted information. Dreams begin with periodic burts of activity in the pons, which activate certain parts of the cortex, the amygdala, a portion of the temporal lobe highly responsible for emotional processing, and because of this, dreams often have a high emotional content.
What is the clinico-anatomical hypothesis? Whre does the name come from?	clinico-anatomical hypothesis - name comes from the hypothesis being derived from clinical studies of patients with various kinds of brain damage. Agreeing with the activation-synthesis hypothesis, this hypothesis agress that dreams are activated by arousing stimuli generated by the brain in combination with recent mmories and any stimulation the brain is recieving from its senses. The difference in this hypothesis is that it believes that dreams is thinking that takes place under unusual conditions. Because we are not moving, because primary motor cortex is supressed, and we are not recieving visual or auditoriy information. However, activity is relatively high in the inferior part of the parietal cortex, an area which is important for visuospatial perception. People with damage to this area have problems binding body sensations to vision, and also report as having no dreams. Other active areas are the amygdala, hypothalamus and other areas respsible for emotions. Conclusive idea: either internal or external stimulation activates parts of the parietal, occipital and temporal cortex. As no sensory infromation comes from V1, the stimulation develops into hallucinatory perceptions.
What is the biological definition of life?	Biologically life is interpreted as a coordinated set of chemical reactions.
Why do all living creatures need water to survive?	Because Every chemical reaction in a living body occurs in a water solution at a rate that depends on the identity and concentration of molecules in the water, temperature and presence of possible contaminants. This is why all living animals need water.
What is homeostasis?	homeostasis - refers to temperature regulation and other biological processes that keep body variables within a fixed range.
when discussing internal regulation, what is negative feedback?	processes caused by the homeostasis to reduce discrepanices from the set point are known as negative feedback.
How many kcal does an average adult use every day? What is the majority of this energy used for?	An average adult expends 2600 kcal per day. 2/3 of this energy goes is used for basal metabolism he energy which is used to maintain a constant body temperature while resting.