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120 Cards in this Set

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What two general mechanisms/responses does the immune system consist of?
1. Innate mechanisms that confer a nonspecific defense against disease-causing agents (pathogens)
2. Adaptive immune responses, which offer immune defenses against specific molecular targets, or antigens.
Pg. 232
What is Adaptive immunity against specific antigen-bearing pathogens is afforded by?
It is afforded by B and T lymphocytes (produced in the bone marrow and lymphoid organs)
Pg. 232
What does structures does the immune system include?
It includes all of the structures and processes that provide a defense against potential “pathogens” (disease-causing agents).
Pg. 232
What are some of the bodily processes and structures that provide Innate (nonspecific) immunity?
1. Epithelial membranes (which nonspecifically block the entrance of most pathogens into the body)
2. Stomach acidity (which kills many microorganisms before they can damage the body)
3. Phagocytosis by neutrophils, monocytes in the blood and macrophages and other phagocytes in the tissues.
4. Complement proteins in the plasma (which become activated to destroy pathogens by antibodies produced in an adaptive immune response)
5. Natural killer (NK) cells (which are so named because of their ability to kill tumor cells)
Pg. 232
What type of leukocyte provides Adaptive (specific) immunity?
Lymphocytes
Pg. 232
What 2 general processes are parts of Innate Immunity?
Phagocytosis
and
Fever
Pg. 233
What are the 3 groups of phagocytic cells in Innate immunity?
Neutrophils
Mononuclear phagocyte system
Organ-specific phagocytes
Pg. 233
What specific cells does the “Mononuclear phagocyte system” include?
It includes “monocytes” in the blood and “macrophages” (derived from monocytes) in the connective tissues.
Pg. 233
Where are “Organ-specific phagocytes” found?
They are found in the liver, spleen, lymph nodes, lungs, and brain.
Pg. 233
What can be produced if there is a break in the epithelial barrier provided by the epidermis of the skin, and bacteria enters the connective tissue dermis?
Local Inflammation can be produced
Pg. 233
What is the process where Neutophils and Monocytes squeeze themselves through the small channels between the adjacent endothelial cells that form the walls of capillaries and the smallest venules called?
Extravasation
Or
Diapedesis
Pg. 233
What is the name of the enzyme that the most abundant type of WBC releases and what does this result in?
Proteases (Protein-Digesting Enzymes)
This liquefies the surrounding tissue and creates “Pus”
Pg. 233
What is the name of the cells in the connective tissue that contain histamine?
Mast Cells
Pg. 233
What other pro-inflammatory regulatory molecule are Mast Cells stimulated to release besides Histamine?
Cytokines
Pg. 233
True or False. Cytokines can fit into many different categories of regulatory molecules, such as: Autocrine, Paracrine and Hormones.
True
Pg. 234
What are some of the effects of Histamine?
1. In the lungs, histamine stimulates constriction of the bronchioles (small airways).
2. Produces Vasodilation in small blood vessels (which causes the inflamed area to become red, as blood flow increases)
3. It also increases capillary permeability to proteins (which enables proteins to leak into the interstitial fluid and cause local edema).
Pg. 234
What are the general characteristic symptoms of local inflammation?
Redness and Warmth (due to vasodilation)
Swelling (due to edema)
and
Pain
Pg. 234
What might be produced if Inflammation continues?
A Fever may result
Pg. 234
What is the name of the chemical that resets the neural center in the hypothalamus upward?
Endogenous Pyrogen
(Body temperature is controlled by a neural center in the hypothalamus, which acts like a thermostat, this thermostat is reset upward in response to a chemical called “Endogenous Pyrogen”)
Pg. 234
What cells does the Endotoxin of bacteria stimulate?
It stimulates monocytes and macrophages to release endogenous pyrogen and other inflammatory cytokines.
Pg. 234
What does the release endogenous pyrogen and other inflammatory cytokines cause?
The release of these substances causes Fever, Increased Sleepiness, and a Fall in Plasma Iron Concentration.
Pg. 234
What type of leukocyte secretes antibodies that bind to the surface of bacteria and target them for attack by the innate immune system?
B Lymphocytes
Pg. 234
What type of Lymphocytes provide adaptive immunity?
B and T lymphocytes
Pg. 234
_________ are molecules or parts of molecules, that stimulate the adaptive (specific) immune response by lymphocytes.
Antigens
Pg. 234
What do the Lymphocytes that seed the thymus become?
They become T Lymphocytes
or
T Cells
Pg. 235
What is specific type of Lymphocyte that comprises the majority of Lymphocytes found in the blood and in the “germinal centers” of the lymph nodes?
T Lymphocytes
or
T Cells
Pg. 235
Where do T Cells originate from?
They either come from the Thymus or an ancestor that came from the Thymus.
Pg. 235
Where do B Cells originate from?
They originate from the bone marrow.
Pg. 235
What are the structures of origin of the B Cells and T Cells known as?
They are known as Primary Lymphoid Organs
(Since B Cells come from the Bone Marrow and T Cells come from the Thymus, the Bone Marrow and Thymus are known as the Primary Lymphoid Organs)
Pg. 235
What do B Lymphocytes produce?
B Cells produce antibodies
Pg. 235
What type of cell is said to provide “Humoral Immunity”?
The B Lymphocytes
Pg. 235
What specific type of adaptive immunity does T Cells provide?
They provide Cell-Mediated Immunity (CMI)
Pg. 235
What structures are included as the Secondary Lymphoid Organs?
Lymph Nodes
Spleen
Tonsils
Areas under the intestinal mucosa
Pg. 235
What is the name of the secondary lymphoid organ that is under the intestinal mucosa?
Peyer’s Patches
Pg. 235
What activity can aid in immune function and why?
Exercise
Because exercise promotes movement of lymph and lymphocytes through the lymphatic system
Pg. 235
What happens to B Cell Lymphocytes when certain antigens bind to the antibodies that serve as receptors for antigens on these cells?
Binding of these receptors to specific antigens stimulates cell division and the transformation of the B lymphocyte into Antibody-Secreting Plasma Cells and Memory Cells.
Pg. 235
What general basis does Antibody-Secreting Plasma Cells and Memory Cells provide?
They provide the basis for Active and Passive Immunity
Activity of B Lymphocytes is also responsible for some aspects of an allergic reaction
Pg. 235
True or False. Each B Lymphocyte produces many types of Antibody Proteins.
False. Each B lymphocyte produces only one specific type of antibody protein.
Pg. 235
What is another name for Antibody proteins?
Immunoglobulins (Ig)
Pg. 236
What is the major type of antibody protein found in plasma, activates complement and can easily cross the placenta?
IgG
Pg. 236
What is the main type of antibody protein found in body secretions?
IgA
Pg. 236
What is the antibody protein which is too large to cross the placenta and is a good activator of complement?
IgM
Pg. 236
What antibody protein’s function is poorly understood?
IgD
Pg. 236
What antibody protein is important in immediate Hypersensitivity reactions (allergies)?
IgE
Pg. 236
What is the name of the region on an antibody that binds to a particular antigen?
The Variable Region
Pg. 236
What is a characteristic of plasma cells?
Plasma cells have an extensive granular endoplasmic reticulum for protein synthesis (They are the factories for the production of antibody proteins)
Pg. 236
What are characteristics of Memory cells?
Memory cells are long-lived and when the same antigen is introduced into the body later they can quickly create clones of plasma cells and secrete antibodies for the secondary immune response.
Pg. 236
What are the 2 ways antibodies provide immunological protection?
1. They increase the activity of the phagocytic cells.
2. The binding of antibodies to antigens activates a group of plasma proteins known as the “Complement” Proteins.
Pg. 236
What is the process called when bacteria are coated with antibodies making it easier for neutrophils and macrophages to attach?
Opsinization
Pg. 236
What is the name of the process when a bacterial cell bears antigens on its surface that become bound by antibodies, and the binding of antigens to antibodies causes certain complement proteins in the plasma to become activated, which then causes other complement proteins to become inserted into the plasma membrane of the victim cell?
Complement Fixation
Pg. 236
What is the name of the structure formed by complement proteins which is a large pore that can kill a bacterial cell through the osmotic inflow of water?
Membrane Attack Complex
Pg. 237
How do antibodies kill bacterial cells indirectly?
They either accomplish this by promoting their phagocytosis by neutrophils and other phagocytic cells
or
By activating complement proteins
Pg. 237
In what ways has experience shown that antibody-mediated immunity is most useful to the body?
Neutralizing foreign poisons
Protecting against microbes which exist outside our body’s cell membranes (extracellular bacteria and extracellular viruses)
Pg. 237
True or False. B Lymphocytes provide active immunity only.
False. B Lymphocytes provide both active and passive immunity.
Pg. 237
What is the latent period before measureable amounts of specific antibodies appear in the blood when a person is exposed to a particular pathogen for the first time?
5 to 10 days
Pg. 237
What is the result called when a person is exposed to a particular pathogen for the first time?
Primary Response
Pg. 237
What is the result called when a person has a subsequent exposure to the same antigen?
Secondary Response
Pg. 237
What happens in a secondary response?
The antibody production is much more rapid, and maximum antibody concentrations in the blood are reached in less than two hours.
Pg. 237
What does the induction of a secondary response provide for?
It provides for what is known as Active Immunity
Pg. 237
How do vaccinations work?
They work by producing artificial active immunity.
Pg. 237
What is the learning process responsible for the change from a primary to secondary response and also accounts for active immunity known as?
It is known as The Clonal Selection Theory
Pg. 237-238
True or False. T Cells secrete antibodies.
False. T Cells do not secrete antibodies.
Pg. 238
What is the name of the type of immunity that refers to the immune protection provided by exogenous antibodies (antibodies produced by another person or an animal)?
Passive Immunity
Pg. 238
What are passive immunizations used for?
They are used to protect people who become exposed to:
Extremely Virulent Infections
Toxins (such as Tetanus, Hepatitis, Rabies, and Snake Venom)
Pg. 238
What does antiserum contain and what is it also known as?
It contains Antibodies
It is also called Antitoxin
Pg. 238
What is a person’s ability to develop active immunity called and when does it develop?
It is called Immunological Competence
It doesn’t begin to develop until about a month after birth.
Pg. 238
What are the 4 types of acquired immunity?
1. Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
2. Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
3. Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
4. Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
Pg. 239
Which specific type of acquired immunity occurs following an infection or illness with a microbe?
Naturally Acquired Active Immunity
Pg. 239
Which specific type of acquired immunity occurs when a vaccine is given, perhaps repeatedly like a booster shots to increase antibody levels to maintain high levels of immunity?
Artificially Acquired Active Immunity
Pg. 239
Which specific type of acquired immunity occurs when maternal antibodies cross the placenta prior to birth or enter the baby through breastfeeding?
Naturally Acquired Passive Immunity
Pg. 239
Which specific type of acquired immunity occurs when a person is injected with antibodies or immune cells from a donor for example, gamma globulin injections before foreign travel or after an accidental needle stick?
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
Pg. 239
What type of immunity is receiving RhoGam considered?
Artificially Acquired Passive Immunity
Pg. 239
What term(s) refer to an abnormal immune response to particular antigens?
Allergy
and
Hypersensitivity
Pg. 239
What are the 2 allergy categories?
1. Immediate hypersensitivity
2. Delayed hypersensitivity
Pg. 239
Which cells are responsible for causing Immediate Hypersensitivity?
B Cells
Pg. 239
Which cells are responsible for causing Delayed Hypersensitivity?
T Cells
Pg. 239
What kinds of conditions can Immediate Hypersensitivity cause?
Allergic Rhinitis (chronic runny or stuffy nose)
Allergic Asthma
Atopic Dermatitis (“Urticaria”, or Hives)
Pg. 239
Which specific type of antibody protein is secreted by B cells and plasma cells in a normal secondary immune response?
Immunoglobulin G (IgG)
Pg. 239
Which specific type of antibody protein is secreted in an Immediate Hypersensitivity reaction?
Immunoglobulin E (IgE
Pg. 239
_____ antibodies circulate in the blood and other body fluids, whereas antibodies of the ____class attach to mast cells and other basophils, which have membrane receptors for them.
IgG
IgE
Pg. 239
What do the mast cells and basophils release when the IgE antibodies bound to them bind to an allergen?
They release a number of chemicals that produce allergic symptoms, these include:
Histamine
Leukotrienes
Prostaglandin D
Pg. 239
What are people with severe allergies promoting by injecting themselves with low doses of the offending allergen?
They are promoting the production of specific Blocking IgG Antibodies
Pg. 240
What is the name of a delayed hypersensitivity condition?
Contact Dermatitis
Pg. 240
What types of things provoke contact dermatitis?
Poison oak, Poison sumac, Poison ivy, and by Exposure to certain metals (i.e.-nickel and chromium in jewelry and belt buckles).
Pg. 240
True or False. Delayed hypersensitivity involves antibodies.
False. Delayed hypersensitivity is caused by an abnormal T cell response, therefore antibodies are not involved and antihistamines are not effective.
Pg. 240
What are the only effective treatments for Delayed Hypersensitivity reactions and why?
Corticosteroids (specifically, glucocorticoids such as hydrocortisone)
Because they suppress the immune response
Pg. 240
What is the skin test for Tuberculosis based upon?
It is based on a Delayed Hypersensitivity reaction
Pg. 240
What is the name of the test where tubercle antigens are rubbed into the skin with a small needle?
The Tine Test
Pg. 240
What is the name of the test where tubercle antigens are injected under the skin?
The Mantoux Test
Pg. 240
True or False. Free antigens stimulate T Lymphocytes.
False. Free antigens cannot stimulate T lymphocytes; instead, the antigens must be brought to the T lymphocytes on the surface of antigen-presenting cells.
Pg. 240
What are the main antigen-presenting cells that present the antigens to T Lymphocytes?
Macrophages
and
Dendritic Cells
Pg. 240
What are the names of the T lymphocytes that destroy their victim cells by direct contact?
Cytotoxic T Cells
or
Killer T Cells
Pg. 240
What function do Helper T Cells serve?
They secrete a variety of chemical cytokines, known as lymphokines (which promote different immune functions)
Pg. 240
What function do Regulatory T Cells provide?
They suppress specific immune responses
Pg. 240
True or False. T Lymphocytes do not have antibody receptor proteins on their surface.
True. T lymphocytes (T cells), unlike B lymphocytes, don’t produce antibodies, and so they don’t have antibody receptor proteins on their surfaces.
Pg. 240
Where are the antigen presenting cells that present antigens to T Lymphocytes found in concentrated amounts?
At sites where pathogens might enter, such as:
The skin
Intestinal Mucosa
Lungs
Pg. 241
What is the name of a type of immune dendritic cell found in the epidermis, that engulfs antigens by phagocytosis and them moves them to its surface. Which then migrates through lymphatic vessels to secondary lymphoid organs to present them to T Lymphocytes that are specific for that antigen?
Langerhan Cells
Pg. 241
What is the name of the protein group that an antigen must be bound to on the surface of the antigen-presenting cell in order for it to stimulate a T cell?
Major Histocompatability Complex (MHC)
Pg. 241
What is the general function of Major Histocompatability Complexes in a person?
The function of MHC proteins within a person is to enable the T cell receptor to be activated by its specific antigen.
Pg. 241
What type of T Cells modify immune responses?
Helper T Cells
and
Regulatory T Cells
Pg. 241
What does the secretion of Lymphokines by Helper T Cells stimulate?
Cytotoxic T Cells
or
Killer T Cells
Pg. 241
What is the specific name of the Lymphokine that is released by Helper T Cells that is required for the activation of Killer T cells?
Interleukin-2
Pg. 241
What is the specific name of the Lymphokine that is released by Helper T Cells that is required for the cell division and clone formation of B cells?
Interleukin-4
Pg. 241
What are the names of the Lymphokines that promote the development of other leukocytes?
Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor
and
Granulocyte-Monocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor
Pg. 241
What were Regulatory T Lymphocytes previously known as?
They were previously known as Suppressor T Lymphocytes
Pg. 241
How specifically do Regulatory T Lymphocytes suppress specific immune responses?
They inhibit Killer T Cells or (Cytotoxic T Cells)
and
B Lymphocytes
Pg. 241
Inadequate and inappropriate function of what particular cell may partly explain why people get allergies and autoimmune diseases?
T Cells

(Inadequate function of the regulatory T cells may partly explain why people get allergy and autoimmune diseases and inappropriate functioning of regulatory T cells may also cause disease)
Pg. 242
__________ Lymphocytes destroy by cell-to-cell contact.
Killer T Lymphocytes
or
Cytotoxic T Lymphocytes
Pg. 242
What are some examples that occur when Cytotoxic T Cells identify antigens that are part of a person’s own body?
1. A body cell has been infected by a virus and displays viral antigens on its surface.
2. When a cell becomes transformed due to malignancy (cancer)
3. When body cells display normal “self” antigens that the immune system doesn’t recognize and so doesn’t tolerate.
Pg. 242
What are Cytotoxic T Cells (Killer T Cells) responsible for?
They are responsible for:
1. Defending against intracellular viral infections
2. Defending against fungal infections
3. Defending against intracellular bacterial infections (such as the tubercle bacteria responsible for tuberculosis)
4. Defending against protozoan parasites
5. Transplant rejection reactions
6. Immunological surveillance against cancer
Pg. 242
What do Cytotoxic T Cells (Killer T Cells) secrete when they are in actual physical contact with their victim cell?
They secrete molecules called “Perforins”
and
Enzymes called “Granzymes”
Pg. 242
What is the function of Perforin?
It enters the plasma membrane and forms pores.
Pg. 242
What is the function of Granzymes?
It enters the pores formed by Perforin and promotes destruction of the victim cell.
Pg. 242
What is the name of the cell that are related to Cytotoxic T Cells and have an ability to kill tumor cells?
Natural Killer Cells (NK Cells)
Pg. 242
True or False. Natural Killer Cells are considered to be part of the innate immune system?
True
Pg. 242
Why are Natural killer Cells considered to be part of the innate immune system?
Because, unlike the B and T lymphocytes that are part of the adaptive immune system, Natural killer Cells do not have receptors for specific antigens.
Pg. 242
True or False. Natural Killer Cells do not destroy by cell-to-cell contact only Cytotoxic T Cells do.
False. Natural Killer cells destroy by cell-to-cell contact, they also secrete various cytokines that recruit the B and T lymphocytes.
Pg. 242
What condition results from a lack of both antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity?
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease (SCID)
or
Bubble Boy Disease
Pg. 242-243
What causes SCIDs?
It is an inherited disease that causes stem cells of white blood cells to lack an enzyme called “Adenosine Deaminase.”
Pg. 243
What did David the “Bubble Boy” develop that eventually caused his death?
He developed B cell Lymphoma (a fatal cancer of his B cells)

Doctors injected bone marrow with donated cells from his sister and because his sister’s bone marrow cells contained the Mononucleosis Virus (Epstein-Barr Virus, or EBV) this led to him developing B Cell Lymphoma.
Pg. 243