Biogeography Set #1

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How long does an interglacial last?

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~ 10,000 years

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How long does a glacial period last?

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~ 100,000 years

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Cosmopolitan Distribution (Pandemic)

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Taxa that are widespread, ideally on every part of the globe. Unlikely at species level.

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Example of Cosmopolitan Distribution

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Plantago Major;
Occurs on all continents, but not found in:
The Sahara
The Amazon
Antarctica

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Endemic Distribution

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Taxa confined to a limited geographic area

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Two subgroups of Endemic Distribution:

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Broad vs. Narrow

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Narrow Endemic

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Confined to a very small area

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Broad Endemic

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Confined to a slightly larger geographic expanse

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Example of Narrow Endemic

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Ginkgo Biloba; grows in two small areas in Eastern China on the Tianmushan Reserve

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Example of Broad Endemic

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Broad - Leafed Eucalyptus; native to Australia and Oceania

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Continuous but Limited Distribution

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Distribution that is fairly continuous, but limited by Latitude

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4 subcategories of Continuous but Limited Distribution:

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1. Pantropical
2. Temperate
3. Circumboreal
4. Circumpolar

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Pantropical Distribution

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Taxa only occur in tropical regions and are restricted by sensitivity to temperature.

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Where are the tropics located?

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Between 23.5º N (Tropic of Cancer) and 23.5º S (Tropic of Capricorn).

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Example of Pantropical Distribution:

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Aracaceae (palm) family. Seeds dispersed via ocean.

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Circumboreal Distribution

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Taxa that thrive in mid - high latitudes.

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Example of Circumboreal Distribution

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Picea Glauca; found in Boreal forests of North America and Eurasia. Conical shape allows snow to fall off and maximizes surface area for sunlight absorption at various angles.

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Temperate Distribution

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Taxa limited to mild, temperate environments (between tropics and boreal).

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Example of Temperate Distribution

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Maple Tree (Acer)

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Circum - Polar Distribution

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Distribution that circles the arctic and Antarctic regions.

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Example of Circum - Polar Distribution

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Euthema Edwardii and the Arrow Grass (Scheurchzeria) Genus

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Disjunct Distribution

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Taxa found in two or more separate geographic regions. Several types.

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7 Types of Disjunct Distribution:

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1. East Asian / North American
2. South American / Australasian
3. South Pacific
4. North American / South American
5. Bipolar
6. Amphitropical
7. Arctic Alpine

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East Asia / North American Disjuction Example

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Liriodendron and Magnolia and Nyssa (Tupelo Gum).

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South American / Australasian Disjunction Example

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Also called amphipacific; Found in Southern Hemisphere.
ex. Nothefagus (Southern Beech) found in Chile, New Zealand, Tasmania and Australia. Fossil Record indicates broader distribution during Oligocene (33.9 - 24 million years ago).

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North / South American Disjunction Example

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Sarraceniaceae (Pitch Plant); insectivorous; grows in oligotrophic (nutrient poor) bogs

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South Pacific Disjunction Example

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Jovellana Genus (Scrophulariaceae) found in Chile and some small islands in Oceania

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Amphitropical Disjunction Example

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Occur on either side of the tropics.
Ex. Creosote Bush (Larrea) found in North American Deserts
Ex. Osmorhiza Chilenis, a woodland flower

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Bipolar Disjunction Example

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Rare pattern; Only found in Polar regions.
Ex. Crawberry Family (Empetruceae) found in circumboreal and austral regions. Has succulent - type leaves to retain water.

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Arctic Alpine Disjunction

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Taxa occur in arctic region and high altitudes (even those in the tropics). Prefer the cooler temperatures found in low latitudes and high altitudes.
Ex. Saxifraga Cemina found in Himalayas, Rockies and Arctic Regions.

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4 factors affection Biotic Distribution

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1. Historical
2. Geographical
3. Ecological
4. Anthropogenic

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Historical Biogeography (Paleontology)

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Involve continental drift and range distribution. Geological / evolutionary processes.

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Geographical Factors (Island Biogeography)

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Involves physical and climatic barriers, as well as organisms dispersal ability.

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Ecological Factors (Ecological Biogeography)

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Involves selective factors (biotic competition) and permissive factors (climatic limits) and range distribution.

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Anthropogenic Factors (Cultural Biogeography)

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Involves humans as dispersal agents, habitat destruction/modification and extinction through overuse.

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Disjunction

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Distribution in which closely related taxa are found in widely separated geographical environments.

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Two Explanations for Disjunction

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1. Vicariance
2. Dispersal

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Vicariant Disjunction

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The prolonged separation or division of a group of organisms by a geographical barrier (such as mtns or a body of water), resulting in species differentiation from the original group into new species varieties.

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Example of Vicariance

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Beech Trees (Fagus) in North America and Europe can no longer interbreed.

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Three Categories of Vicariant Events

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1. Geomorphologic
2. Climatic
3. Evolutionary

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Three Types of Geomorphologic Vicariance

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1. Continental Drifts
2. Land Bridges
3. Mountain Building

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Example of Geomorphologic Vicariance

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The Bering Straight between Alaska and Russia as a land bridge during periods of glaciation. Has been "turned on and off" various times through out geologic history.

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Climatic Vicariance

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Unfavorable variations in climate resulting in separation and differentiation of species.

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Example of Climatic Vicariance

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Mountain tops during interglacial periods and the Amazon aridity hypothesis.

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Evolutionary Vicariance

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Results in parapatric speciation at two ends of a long, narrow range, where opposing environmental factors result in the development of different traits among the same species, and eventually speciation.

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Example of Evolutionary Vicariance

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The Ficus Family.

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Dispersal Disjunction

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Geographical separation of a species due to long distance dispersal. Helps to explain which species and how many occupy oceanic islands.

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Three types of Dispersal

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1. Jump Dispersal
2. Diffusion
3. Secular

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Jump Dispersal (Waif)

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Colonization process by the chance arrival of a species (commonly to scoured volcanic islands) based on wind, ocean currents, flying off course, floating on debris, etc.

Species of animals found on islands are non - random subsets of potential dispersals from the mainland.

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Characteristics of Jump Dispersal

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1. Occurs rapidly (within an individuals lifespan)
2. Occurs across vast expanses of inhospitable terrain
3. Usually involves single species
4. Results in disharmonic biota
5. Wind/sea dispersed organisms disproportionately abundant

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Diffusion Dispersal

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Tends to follow jump dispersal; involves the expansion of an organisms environmental range by dispersing into newly hospitable habitat. Occurs over many generations due to range shift or removal of an environmental or evolutionary barrier.

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Example of Diffusion

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- Plant migrations at the end of an ice age.

- Africanized Killer Bees (Apis mellifera scutellata) in the Americas after accidental introduction by humans.

- Spread of Nile Virus

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Secular Dispersal

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Very slow dispersal that occurs over large geologic time spans with species evolution occurring en route.

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Example of Secular Dispersal

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Lama (Lama guanicoe) evolving from camel - like ancestor whilst migrating from North to South America.

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Three types of Dispersal Routes

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1. Sweepstake
2. Corridor
3. Filter

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Sweepstake Route

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Coincides with jump dispersal, as it occurs purely by chance on very rare occasions. Creates disharmonic and impoverished biota. Sometimes provides opportunity for island hopping.

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Sweepstake Example

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Island hopping in the Australasian Archipelago

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Corridor Route

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Characterizes the diffusion mode of dispersal. Results in taxanomically balanced biota with no significant selectivity. Permits the diffusion of MOST taxa.

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Example of Corridor Route

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The Bering Straight as a land bridge.

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Filter Route

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Similar to corridor, but includes a barrier that acts as a filter allowing the passage of only selective taxa.

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Filter Route Example

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The Isthmus of Panama that discriminates against the dispersal of fresh water fishes.

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Four Types of Endemism

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1. Paleoendemism
2. Insular Endemics
3. Neoendemics
4. Ecological Endemics

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Paleoendemics

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Biotic relics of a previously widespread dispersed species preserved in nunataks during glacial periods. Can occur due to climatic restrictions.

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Example of Paleoendemism

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- Ginkgo biloba
- Metaequoia glyptostaboides
- Sequoia (redwood trees)

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Insular Endemics

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Products of long isolation due to geographical factors. Constituted of disharmonic biota. Human degradation of habitats are the largest threat to these species.

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Example of Insular Endemics

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1. Hawaii, where 90% of species and 20% of genera of indigenous flowering plants are endemic.

2. 80% of Tropical Alpine flora, such as those found in the Andes, Mt. Kilimanjaro and Kenya in East Africa endangered.

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Neoendemics

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Products of recent evolution and involves the hybridization of genetically "soft" taxa when formerly isolated populations come into contact. Occurs in taxa with high evolutionary rates.

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Example of Neoendemism

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- Crataegus (Hawthorn) in Southeast U.S.

- Rubus in Northeast U.S. Genetically confusing, as 3 studies in 1 area revealed 24, 205 and 381 species respectively.

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Ecological Endemics

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Occurs due to habitat specialization to microclimates.

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Example of Ecological Endemism

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Cupresses sargentii; found only in serpentine soils of California and Oregon.

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Serpentine Soils

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derives from ultramafic rocks (specifically serpentine), resulting in:
- low calcium - to - magnesium ratios
- lack of essential nutrients, such as nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus.

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7 Factors that Effect Biogeographic Distribution

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1. Solar Radiation
2. Temperature
3. Moisture
4. CO2
5. Soils and Soil Chemistry
6. Wind
7. Fire

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3 Elements of Solar Radiation

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1. Quality
2. Intensity
3. Duration/Periodicity

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Light Quality

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This relates to the wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum. Only visible light (380-710 nm) is useful for photosynthesis.

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How do plants that grow at high elevation cope with UV exposure?

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They grow in circular arrangements and as dwarfs.

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Light Intensity

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This relates to the amount of available light.

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How does light intensity effect plant distribution?

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It effects rates of photosynthesis, germination and establishment of seedlings.

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Two Categories according to Light Intensity Requirements

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1. Heliophytes
2. Sciophytes

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Heliophytes

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Light tolerant/loving and grow best under full light conditions.

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Sciophytes

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Shade tolerant/loving and grow best under shade conditions.

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Ecological Significance of Light Intensity

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1. Responsible for stratification within forests and lakes; there is low biological activity below the photic zone (in the benthic zone) due to low light intensity.
2. Also effects the series of ecological succession. At time of disturbance, pioneer species are normally heliophytes that are replaced by shade tolerant plants over time.

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Photoperiodicity

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The diurnal cycle of light and darkness and its effect on the distribution of life, including the seasonal cycles of long summer days and short winter nights. Affects many natural biorhythm adaptations.

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2 Categories according to Photoperiodism Adaptations

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1. Short Day Species
2. Long Day Species

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Short Day Species

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Plants that only flower when the day length is less than 12 hours (usually in the spring and fall).

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Examples of Short Day Species

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teosintes and Chrysanthemums "mums"

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Long Day Species

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Plants that only flower when the day is long (12-14 hours).

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Examples of Long Day Species

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Summer flowering plants in high latitudes, such as sugar beets and potatoes.

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Limiting Factor #2

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Temperature

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How does Temperature Effect photosynthesis?

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The rate of photosynthesis generally increases up to about 25ºC and declines until ~40ºC, where it stops.

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How does Temperature Effect the Biogeographic Distribution of plants?

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It affects photosynthesis, respiration (metabolism), evapotranspiration and biorhythms, such as flowering and germination.

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Thermoperiodism

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The response of plants to seasonal and diurnal alterations of high/low temperatures.

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4 Latitudinal Plant Categories:

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1. Microtherms
2. Mesotherms
3. Hekistotherms
4. Megatherms

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Megatherms

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Require high temps, found in tropics.

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Mesotherms

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Found in subtropical, warm and temperate climates.

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Microtherms

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Found in boreal latitudes

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Hekistotherms

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Found in snow, tundra and ice latitudes.

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How does temperature limit distribution of plants?

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Not by the high temp, but the low temp and the occurrence of frost. This is responsible for the latitudinal arrangement of vegetation.

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Phenology

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The study of seasonal plant and animal activity driven by environmental factors.

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Isophenes

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Lines joining places with similar biological clocks.

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Hopkin's Bioclimatic Law

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Eastern American phenological events occur 4 days later per every 1ºN and 120m increase in altitude.

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Limiting Factor #3

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Moisture

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Plant leaf adaptations to moisture environments

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1. spiny, succulent leaves with deep root systems in desert.
2. needle leaves in boreal forest plants.
3. large leaves in tropical plants to

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Root Absorption of Moisture

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When soil temperature is too hot/cold or when the pH is too high/low, root absorption of moisture is impaired.

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3 Plant Categories based on ability to adapt to DRY conditions

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1. water stress avoiders
2. water stress escapers
3. water stress tolerators

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Water Stress Escapees

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Mostly small plants of seasonally dry environments that survive as dormant seeds.

Seeds of many desert plants can survive dormant for hundreds of years and sprout as early as 8 days following rainfall.

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Water Stress Avoiders

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Include plants in tropical or subtropical regions that 1) lose their leaves and remain dormant during the dry season
2. have hard, waxy cuticles to decrease moisture loss or
3. develop deep root systems

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Examples of Water Stress Avoiders

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- The octillo plant (loses leaves)
- The sedge species (dies above ground, dormant underground)
- Mesquite shrubs (root systems up to 50m deep)

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3 Plant Classifications according to Moisture Requirements

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1. Hydrophytes
2. Xerophytes
3. Mesophytes

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3 types of Hydrophytes

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1. moisture loving
2. amphibian
3. hygrophyllous

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Moisture loving hydrophytes

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Submerged, floating or emergent.

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Amphibian Hydrophytes

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Alternate between wet and dry environments according to corresponding seasons.
Ex. Scirpus

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Hygrophyllous Hydrophytes

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Tolerate water saturated soils.
Ex. Taxodium and Salix (willow tree).

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Xerophytes

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These are drought tolerant plants.

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3 Types of Xerophytes

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1. Ephemeral annuals
2. Succulents
3. Non-succulent Perennials

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Ephemeral Annual Xerophytes

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Complete their life cycle in a matter of weeks and spend most of their lives in seed form.

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Succulent Xerophytes

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Tolerate drought conditions by retaining moisture in hard, waxy leaves.
Ex. Cactus

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Non-Succulent Perennial Xerophytes

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Tolerate drought conditions by developing deep roots.
Ex. Phreatophytes

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Mesophytes

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These are plants with ordinary moisture requirements.

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Limiting Factor #4

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Carbon Dioxide

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3 Categories of Plants based on CO2 Pathways

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1. C3 plants
2. C4 plants
3. CAM Plants

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C3 Plants

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Capture CO2 to produce a sugar containing 3 Carbon atoms.

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C4 Plants

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Capture CO2 to produce a sugar containing 4 carbon atoms. Have extra pump that makes them more efficient at scavenging for CO2 and have a mechanism for prevention of photorespiration.

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How do C4 plants have advantages over C3 plants?

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Use sunlight and CO2 more efficiently and are more productive in hot environments. Can survive in conditions of both high and low concentrations of CO2. Can conduct photosynthesis in warmer environments than C3 plants (above 40ºC)

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Biogeographical implications of C3 vs. C4 plants in the US?

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C4 plants dominate south of 45ºN and C3 plants dominate north of 45ºN.

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CAM Plants

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These plants keep their stomata closed during the day and open them at night in order to avoid high evapotranspiration rates.

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Limiting Factor #5

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Soil and Soil Chemistry

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Soil

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Composed of particles of broken rock that have been altered by chemical and environmental processes, including weathering and erosion.

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Pedogenesis

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The process of soil formation, which is the combined effect of chemical, physical, biological and anthropogenic factors on soil parent material.

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5 Factors of Soil Formation

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Cl O R P T
1. Climates
2. Organic/Biological Material
3. Relief/Topography
4. Parent material
5. Time

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Soil Horizons

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stratigraphically divided units of soil

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5 Soil Regimes

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1. Laterization
2. Calcification
3. Gleization
4. Salination
5. Podzolization

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Laterization

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Soil regime that occurs in hot, rainy climates where strong leaching of soluble nutrients occurs at high rates due to high rainfall amounts. This results in bright red/orange soils due to remaining Fe and Al in the A horizon.

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Product of Laterization

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Oxisols; found almost exclusively in tropical areas of South America and Africa.

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Podzolization

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Soil regime that occurs in cool, moist climates under pine forests (boreal climates) and is characterized by strong leaching of Fe and Al to the B horizon, leaving bleached silica in the A horizon.

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Product of Podzolization

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Spodsols; white silica - rich A horizon and red Fe/Al - rich B horizon.

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Calcification

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A soil regime that occurs in warm, semi-arid environments (grasslands) and involves illuviation of CaCO3 in the B horizon due the downward motion and upward motion (capillary action) of water through the soil, making it high in organic matter and soluble bases. Little leaching.

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Product of Calcification

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Mollisols, commonly found in a band of 50ºN and are common in the U.S.

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Salinization

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Soil regime that occurs in warm, dry environments (typically deserts or steppes) where soluble salts precipitate from water and accumulate in the soil. Little leaching due to capillary action, making salts visible on or near the surface.

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Product of Salinization

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Aridsols, which are usually too dry and salty for mesophytic plants to grow.

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Gleization

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Occurs in low - lying, water logged regions with high rainfall amounts (wetlands) where bacterial activity is slowed by the constantly wet environment, thus inhibiting decomposition of organic matter and causing it to accumulate in thick layers with peat as the upper layer.

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Why are soils produced by Gleization black/dark - blue?

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Decaying plant matter releases acids that react with iron in the soil, which is reduced rather than oxidized.

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Products of Gleization

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Histols, which are rich in plant tissue and sometimes mined for fuel where wood is limited (Russia and Northern Europe).

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Physiological drought

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Drought experienced by plants living in extremely acidic or extremely alkaline soils. Plants living in these environments tend to exhibit xeromorphic adaptations.

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Minerals associated with high pH (alkaline) soils:

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Phosphorus, Fe, Copper, Boron and Zinc.

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Minerals associated with low pH (acidic) soils:

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Excessive solubility of Fe and Al

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2 Plant Types based on Soil Chemistry

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1. Halophytes: salt loving
2. Calciphytes: lime loving

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Halophyte Example

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Cordgrass

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Calciphyte example

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Begonia Fibrosa

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Limiting Factor #6

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Wind

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Where is wind the most pronounced limiting factor?

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Mountains, High Elevations, Tundras and Coastal areas.

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What environment is most sensitive to wind damage?

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Forests

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Direct Effects of Wind:

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Uprooting, defoliating, branch breaking, soil disturbance and asymmetrical growth.

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Indirect effects of wind:

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accelerated transpiration
horizontal growth
dwarf growth

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Ecological Significance of Wind

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Involves the creation of gaps, which enhance forest biodiversity by promoting heterogeneity of the landscape.

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High Pressure

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Associated with cold air, which sinks.

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Low Pressure

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Associated with warm pressure, which rises.

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Direction of wind movement:

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From high pressure to low pressure (cold to hot).