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47 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Linked Genes & how they would effect the observed outcome of a Mendelian dihybrid cross
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two genes may be carried on the same chromosome; 2 alleles are always carried together during crossing over. 9:3:3:1 ratio will not be produced
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Sex-Linked Genes & how they would effect the observed outcome of a Mendelian dihybrid cross
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Not all genes on X and Y are related to sex, such as eye color for fruit flies. Offspring will exhibit different phenotypes according to gender.
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DNA replication & when it is necessary (mention DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase, DNA nucleotides)
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DNA replication is the separation and copying of the two DNA strands so that the body can create new cells. The helicase enzyme separates the two strands, destroying the hydrogen bonds. Each strand is used as a template to make a new strand. compatible DNA nucleotides are strung together by a ligase. The polymerase proofreads.
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Biosynthetic Pathway
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gene expression:
GENOTYPE-->DNA-(transcribed)->RNA -(translated)->Amino Acids -(hookedtogether)->Polypeptides -->PHENOTYPE |
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Relationships between nitrogenous bases, nucleotides, nucleic acid, codons, amino acids, and proteins?
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Four nucleotides in DNA that differ in their nitrogenous bases: C, T, A, G. Codon translations are the genetic code, which form amino acids, which hook together to create proteins. This are expressed in the phenotype.
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How do transcription and translation proceed? (RNA polymerase, mRNA, tRNA, ribosomes, nucleotides, amino acids)
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DNA transcribed into single-stranded mRNA, which is attached to the ribosome. translation occurs on ribosome. tRNA organizes amino acids into polypeptides based on the mRNA code.
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How and when do mistakes occur in DNA replication or gene expression
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when one nucleotide replaces another, or one is missing (deletion). Sickle cell anemia results from a substitution mutation.
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How do we know that cell differentiation is reversible
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Limb regeneration in salamanders proves that cell differentiation occurs so that a new limb can grow. The cells at the point of amputation simplify and replicate rapidly, after which point they will redifferentiate. Eventually, specific genes within each cell will suppress others and differentiation will occur.
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Two ways that gene expression in a eukaryotic cell is regulated inside the nucleus, 2 ways it's regulated outside the nucleus.
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INSIDE:
1) Packing of DNA prevents transcription, and can affect phenotype 2) Transcription factors (enhancer and repressor proteins) affect transcription of other genes. OUTSIDE: 1)length of mRNA's life 2) some proteins require processing |
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Gene expression regulation in a prokaryotic cell
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through operons, which are either on or off
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What are stem cells and two methods of cloning that are being used?
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stem cells are undifferentiated cell that have been harvested from embyros in the past. cloning can be reproductive (take nucleus from clone cell and place it in surrogate mother) or therapeutic (grow stem cells and induce them to specialize.
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Distinguishing traits between animals and other eukaryotic taxa
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multicellular heterotrophs, eat by ingestion, no cell walls, mostly diploid, sexual reproducers, distinct embryonic stages
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3 germ layers in animals
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3 cell layers forms during early development: ectoderm (body covering, nerves), endoderm (gut), mesoderm (muscles, internal organs)
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Key innovations that led to dev't of sponges, jellyfish, flatworms, and roundworms?
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sponges: true multicellularity helps them to filter feed.
jellyfish: symmetry, digestive cavity +specialized stinging cells called cnidoblasts. Flatworms: bilateral symmetry, cephalization (head) Roundworms: body cavity (psuedocoelom) |
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advantages of having a digestive cavity? coelom? what is a pseudocoelom?
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cavity = specialized place for process of digestion, allowed greater differentiation of food intake. coelom (cavity between gut and body's wall) helps movement, organ function, and circulation. psuedocoelom=partially lined cavity
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Compare/contrast Clams, squids, and snails (focus on environments or lifestyles)
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all have coeloms & basic body plan = visceral mass.
Snail=gastropod, uses foot to crawl & is terrestrial Clams= filter feeder with 2-part shell with hinges Squid= jet propulsion |
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Advantages of segmentation & an exoskeleton
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segmentation (annelida) allowed for specialization, ease of movement, and a more derived digestive system
exoskeleton (arthropods)=muscle attachment and prevents water loss |
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echinoderms & chordates have what in common?
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both are deuterostomes, which means that they have two holes (eat through one, excrete from the other)
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3 major groups of chordates:
4 characteristics they have in common: |
1)tunicates 2)lancelets 3)vertebrates.
characteristics: 1) notochord 2)dorsal hollow nerve cord 3)gill slits 4)tail extends beyond anal opening |
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Well-known transition species in vertebrate taxa?
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fish to amphibian transition shows animals like the ichthyostega, which is part fish, part amphibian and lived in the late Devonian. First amphibians evolved in water
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Amphibian transition to land: why? how? how are amphibians still tied to the water?
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first amphibians developed in the water from fish, encouraged because there was less competition on land for food and they were able to escape predators. Amphibians must still reproduce in the water (metamorphasize), plus they must keep their skin moist to respirate
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Which vertebrate taxa are considered amniotes, and what characters do they have in common?
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Reptiles, have dry skin, amniotic eggs (shell), thoracic breathing, ectotherms that regulate temperature by basking
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similarities between birds and mammals?
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endothermic, both evolved from reptiles, expanded after decline of dinosaurs, some lay eggs
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2 main groups of primates?
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1) prosimians (lemurs, mostly nocturnal)
2)anthropoids (monekys, apes, humans) |
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3 groups of mammals?
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prototherians (egg-layers), metatherians (brief gestation, live birth, but then into the sack you go), eutherians (long gestation, live birth)
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Unique characteristics to hominoids?
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1)bipedal locomotion 2)large brain 3)reduced size differene between sexes 4) long-term pair bond + extended parental care
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hypotheses on evolution and global dispersal of Homo sapiens?
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1) Out of Africa: hominids migrated from Africa to Europe, Asia, etc. Cultural transmission enabled evolution, plus their ability to harness the land and use natural biodiversity to their advantage.
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Why do scientists believe we are currently experiencing a biodiversity crisis?
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overexploitation of forests and fisheries (overgrazing, overhunting, overfishing) causing rapid species decline, much faster than historic rates
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major effects of human activity on biodiversity?
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deforestation, land conversion, pollution, loss of habitat, introduction of invasive species -->biodiversity is declining
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actions to reduce effects of these influences?
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regulate use of habitat or harvest, such as the lobster industry in Maine with size, range, and gender restraints.
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Coriolis Effect
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explains direction of prevailing wind patterns, which results from the combined effects of the rising and falling of air masses and Earth's rotation
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Climate
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Long term temperature and precipitation patterns in a region
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Ecology
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Study of how organisms interact with eachother and with their environment and how these interactions affect their distribution and abundance. Whe study it at the individual/genetic level, the population level, and community level, and finally the ecosystem level.
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One biome?
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Desert (located 30 degrees N/S of equator). Cold, dry winds pushed out from the equator sink low to the round and absorb moisture. This biome is dry with no woody vegetation.
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Greenhouse effect/greenhouse gas?
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heat is trapped inside our atmosphere, which maintains a relative temperature and allows us to live. These gases include methane or NOx, which are able to trap heat inside their molecules. Because more of these gases are emitted by industrial processes, more heat is being trapped inside the atmosphere and therefore global temperatures are rising.
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intrinsic growth rate
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rate at which a population grows if there are no external limits, represented by "r" in population models
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Fungal reproduction/important traits?
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Alternation of generations, reproduces by released haploid spores from its fruiting boyd. There spores join with other hyphae, where they become dikaryotic and produce the mycellium, or extended feeding network.
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Natural Selection: what must be true in a population?
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More offspring are produced than can survive
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Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:
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large, isolated, random mating, no mutations, no natural selection
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Two examples of reproductive isolating machanisms?
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Mechanical (species unable to mate due to different genetalia) and Gametic (games can no longer unite)
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Microevolution
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changes in allele frequency over time
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Smallest category capable of evolution?
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Population
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Stomates
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structures on plant leaves that help regulate water content and gas exchange
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Spores vs. gametes (ferns)
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S: haploid, produced by meiosis in the sporangium
G: diploid, produced for reproduction by the gametophyte |
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Pollination and fertilization
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Sporophyte is dominant. Haploid pollow comes to female sporophyte and fertilization occurs when the 2 haploid nuclei fuse into a diploid zygote.
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Bt corn
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GMO in which a gene from the Bt bacteria, one that produces a toxin that crystallizes in the digestive tract of pests, has been inserted. Bt corn is therefore pest resistant.
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homologous chromosomes
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are gaywads
and carry the same gene sequence |
