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104 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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4 Biomolecules
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1. Protein
2. Carbohydrates 3. Lipids 4. Nucleic Acids |
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Common medium for Rxns
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Water
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Products of Metabolism
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CO2 and H2O vapor
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Respiration in relation to chemistry
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Controlled Combustion Rxn
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Def. of Protein
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A large biological molecule of multiple amino acids linked via AMIDE (peptide) bonds
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Def. of Amino Acids
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Protein building block.
A molecule that contains both an AMINE group & CARBOXYLIC ACID functional group |
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Fxn of Protein Enzyme and ex
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Catalyze reaction
ex: Urease |
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Fxn of Protein Hormones and ex
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Maintain homeostasis
ex: insulin |
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Fxn of Protein Storage and ex
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Store O2 in muscle
ex. Myoglobin |
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Example of a Protein used in Transportation
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Hemoglobin
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Fxn of Protein used for Structure and ex
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Shape and support
ex. collagen |
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Ex of Protein used for Protection
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Immunoglobulins
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Protein used for Motion
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Contractile proteins
Actin & Myosin |
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Def of Amino Acid
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the group bonded to the carbon atom next to the carboxyl group (alpha carbon)
- vary in size and shape - Determines the acid/base nature of the 20 amino acids |
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All Amino Acids is Proteins are?
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in L-configuration b/c the enzyme that make protein will only insert L-amino acids
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Primary Structure of Protein
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- Sequence of amino acids
- amino acid residue = single amino acid on peptide chain - remove H2O causes AMIDE bond - repeating back bone of carbon and nitrogen - sequence of amino acid is genetically pre-determined |
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Secondary Structure of Protein
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- regular & repeating patterns
- created by hydrogen bonds - Hydrogen bond connects CARBONYL Oxygen of 1 peptide bond with AMIDE Hydrogen of another nearby bond - this bonding causes Helix shape - Amino Acids are closer together than in Primary Protein structure |
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Tertiary Structure of Protein
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R group bond or interactions among R groups that are further apart on the chain
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Quaternary Structure of Protein
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2 or more Peptide chains aggregate to form a complex structure
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Protein Hydrolysis
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* Loss of Primary Structure
- the reverse of protein formation - Peptide bonds break with the addition of H2O - Results in individual Amino Acids - Digestion of protein occurs in this way |
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Protein Denaturation
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* Loss of Secondary, Tertiary, and Quaternary structure
* Primary Structure remains - Properties of the protein changes - usually irreversible - causes include heat, mechanical agitation ex: cooking an egg |
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Hemoglobin
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- Quaternary Structure essential to fxn
- 4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha & 2 beta) - Heme (4 units) - Amino acid substitution - Electrophoresis determines the type of Hgb |
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Heme
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Organic component with Iron (Fe) atom
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Sickle Cell Anemia
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- Hereditary dx, genetic defect
- Replaces 1 amino acid (Glutamine) in each of 2 beta polypeptide chains of HgbA with another amino acid (Valine) - HgbS replaces HgBA - RBC sickle and are fragile and block capillaries |
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Sickle Cell Trait
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- HgbA inherited from 1 parent and HgBS from other parent
- Patients are usually healthy |
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Phenylkentonuria
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- Absence or deficiency of phenylalanine hydroxlylase
- Phenylalanine accumulated (75% is usually convereted to tyrosine) - Autosomal recessive transmission |
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Tyrosine is precursor to what 2 Neurotransmitters
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Epi and Norepi
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Albinism
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- Lack of enzyme tryosinase
- Lack of melanin in melanocytes - Autosomal recessive transmission |
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Prion Disease
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- Brain protein converts to altered form
- Alteration occurs in secondary protein structure - Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease - Mad Cow dx |
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Prion
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Proteinaceous infectious particle affecting Prion
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Histamine is amino acid for what?
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Histidine
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Porphyria
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- Porphyrin synthesis ultimately results in heme for Hgb
- Series of enzymatic rxns & deficiency of enzyme causes porphyria - Any increase in heme requirements causes accumulation of intermediated in this pathway - Affect CNS and PNS - Porphyria causes triggering of acute result in weakness autonomic nerve sys. dysfxn, Result in: Labile hypotention, death from resp. muscle paralysis, severe emotional disterbences, and psychosis - R/T Cytochrome P450 * Avoid: Thiopental, Barbs, Ethyl Alcohol, Ketamine, Etomidate |
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Enzymes
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- Catalyze chem rxn
- water soluble globular protein - larger and more complex than inorganic catalyst - decreases energy of activation and speeds up rxn - most biologic rxn doen't take place at perceptible rates w/o enzyme - Often highly specific for rxn or grp rxn |
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Carbonic Anhdrase
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* Enzyme Catalyst
- catalyzes the hydration of CO2 & H2O to H2CO3 (carbonic acid) - can hydrate 1 million molec. of CO2 per second - Enzyme speeds rxn 10 million times |
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Cholinesterases
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* Enzyme Catalyst
- Ex: Acetylcholinesterase = True cholinesterase - Ex: Plasma Cholinesterase = Pseudocholinesterase |
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Acetylcholineserase
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- break down Ach and splits it into Acytate ion & Choline
- present in nerve ending & on surface of receptor organs (end organs) to break down Ach |
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Plasma Cholinesterase
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- responsible for hydrolysis of Succinylcholine
- made in liver and found in plasma - most Succinylcholine is metabolized before getting to nerve endings b/c of plasma cholinesterase |
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Atypical Plasma Cholinesterase
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Causes prolonged effect of Succinylcholine
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Mech of Action of Enzymes
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- lock and key mech
- active site on enzyme attracts and holds substrate |
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active site
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pocket on enzyme
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substrate
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reactant in rxn that is catalyzed by enzyme
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Effect of Concentration of Rxn Rate
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- increases the concentration of enzyme or the substrate increases the rxn rate up to the point where the enzyme is saturated
- ex: direct relationship btwn rate of rxn & substrate concentration - pH btwn 5-9 is where max enzyme activity happens |
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2 Enzyme Regulations
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1. Competitive Inhibition
2. Noncompetitive Inhibition |
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Chemical Messengers
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1. Hormones
2. Neurotransmitters & Receptors |
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Hormones
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- chemical messengers of the endocrine system
- transported via blood target organ |
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2 Classifications of Hormones
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1. protein derivatives
2. Lipid derivatives |
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2 Protein derivative hormones
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1. Amino acid derivatives
2. Polypeptides |
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1 Lipid derivative hormone
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Steroids
ex: cortisol and aldosterone |
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Autonomic Nervous System
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- activated by the Hypothalamus, brain stem, and spinal cord
- Presynaptic (pregangiolonic) neuron & postsynaptic (postganglionic) neurons |
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Neuromuscular Junction work on:
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- work on neuron end @ end organ
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Sympathetic N.S.: PREsynaptic (preganglionic) neurotransmitters
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- Acetylcholine
- Cholinergic |
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Sympathetic N.S.: POSTsynaptic (postganglionic) neurotransmitters
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- Norepi
- Adrenergic |
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Parasympathetic N.S.: PREsynaptic neurotransmitters
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- Acetylcholine
- Cholinergic |
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Parasympathetic N.S.: POSTsynaptic neurotransmitters
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- Acetylcholine
- Cholinergic |
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2 Cholinergic Receptors
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1. Muscarinic
2. Nicotinic |
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Muscarinic Receptor:
location agonist antagonist |
-Location: END ORGANS, including glands, smooth muscle, and nodes in heart
- Agonist: Acetylcholine - Antagonist: Antimuscarinics = Atropine, Scopolamine, Glycopyrolate |
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Nicotinic Receptor:
location agonist antagonist |
- Location: Autonomic glanglia, skeletal muscle
- Agonist: Acetylcholine - Antagonist: Nondepolarizing muscle relaxants, Ganglionic blockers |
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The only depolarizing muscle relaxant
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Succinylcholine
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Adrenergic Receptors
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- Neurotransmitter is Norepi (mostly)
- Norepi is synthesized in the cytoplasm then packed into vesicles in postganglionic fibers - released by exocytosis |
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Adrenergic Receptor Action Terminated by:
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1. Reuptake into the postglanglionic nerve endings
2. Diffusion away from the receptor 3. Metabolism by MAO and COMT |
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Alpha-1 Adrenergic Receptors
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- Postsynaptic
- locate in smooth muscle throughout the body, in the eye, lung, blood vessels, uterus, gut, & GU system |
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Alpha-2 Adrenergic Receptors
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- Presynaptic nerve terminals
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Beta-1 Adrenergic Receptors
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- Postsynaptic membranes in the heart
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Beta-2 Adrenergic Receptors
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- Postsynaptic in smooth muscle and glands
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2 Sympathomimetics
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1. Ephedrine
2. Phenylephrine |
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Ephedrine
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- Mixed acting sympathomimetic
- react with Alpha and Beta - Indirect and Direct action |
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Phenylephrine
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- Direct acting
- Alpha agonist |
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Neuromuscular Blocking Drugs
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1. Depolarizers (agonists)
2. Nondepolarizers (antagonist for Ach & neuromusclular jxn) |
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Pseudocholinesterase deficiency
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- Inherited disorder
- Prolonged blockade following suxxinylcholine - Homozygose: block lasts 3hrs or longer - Heterozygose: block lasts little longer than normal |
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Histamine
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- Neurotransmitter
- Naturally occurring AMINE - H1 receptor - H2 receptor - H3 receptor |
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H1 Receptor
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- smooth muscle contraction in respiratory & GI tracts
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H2 Receptor
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- Stimulation of gastric hydrogen ion secretion
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H3 Receptor
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- Stimulation causes inhibition of synthesis & release of histamine
- action may be impaired by H2-receptor blockers increasing histamine release with certain meds ex: atracurium |
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Carbohydrates
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- Aldehydes or Ketones with multiple OH groups
- Most of organic matter on earth - Extensive roles in all forms of life - Monomer unit is a monosaccharide - General formula for a monosaccharide is: C-H2O or literally a "carbon hydrate" - 3-9 carbons - Polysaccharid = monosaccharides linked - Exist as Enantiomers ex: dextrose = change in glucose |
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Role of Carbohydrate
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- Energy store
- Fuels - Metabolic intermediates - Structural framework of DNA/RNA - Structural elements of cell walls - Mediators of cellular interactions |
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Metabolism
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- series of linked rxns
1. take digested Carbohydrates & convert to simple surgars by amylase in mouth 2. Pancrease secretes amylase too 3. Sugars move to liver & other tissue and convert to fatty acid, amino acid, and glycogin *Food (fuel) + Inspired air (O2) = Energy |
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Catabolism
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- brk down of fuel sources by:
1. oxidation of food molecules to produce fuel 2. Convert fuel into cellular energy |
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Anabolism
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- Build up of body tissue from dietary sources
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Energy Production
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- Produced by the oxidation of biomolecules consisting mainly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
- End products are CO2, H2O, and energy (ATP) - CHO, proteins, & lipids differ in structure & broken down in different initial pathways but all end up in the citric acid cycle & oxidative phosphorylation |
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Building Block of Lipids
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fatty acids
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Building Block of Carbohydrates
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Gycolosis
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Building Block of Protein
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Amino Acids
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Mitochondrion
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- cell power house
- 90% ATP produced - have own DNA - reproduce to aid in energy production |
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Glycolysis
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- occur in cytoplasm
- series of rxns that convert 1 molecule of glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid + energy (ATP) |
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Acetyl Co-A
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- intermediate in the breakdown of all classes of food molec
- carries the Acetyl groups into the common pathways of catabolism - citric acid cycle & electron transport, ATP production - also used in the synthesis of Ach |
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Citric Acid Cycle
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- Tricarboxyl acid cycle (TCA)
- Kreb's Cycle - common pathway for oxidation of fuel molec which enter the TCA as acetyl CoA - Breakdown of acetyl group (from acetyl CoA) into 2 moelc of CO2 + energy carried by reduced coenzymes - Primary fxn is the harvesting of high energy electrons to enter oxidative phosphorylation and ATP generation |
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Fat, Sugar, and Protein all breakdown to make?
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Acetyl CoA that moves into the Kreb's Cycle
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
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- occurs in mitochondrion
- high energy electrons from the citric acid cycle - Occurs in a number of electron-transfer rxns which take place in a set of membrane proteins known as the electron transport chain (respiratory chain) - ATP is formed |
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ATP
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- Energy transporting molec
ATP production from ADP (phosphorylation) requires an input of energy which is then released whenever the reverse rxn occurs - ATP hydrolysis releases energy |
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Complete metabolism of 1 mole of glucose through glycolysis & the citric acid cycle yields how many ATP
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36-38 ATP
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the from Anaerobic glycolysis in which glucose is converted to lactate in a net of how many ATP
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2 ATP with anaerobic glycolysis
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How much ATP can be produced with 1 glucose molecule
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30-32 ATP/glucose molec
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Gluconeogenesis
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making of glucose from amino acid and fatty acid
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Metabolic Effects of Trauma and Surgery
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1. Glycemic response = Hepatic glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis
2. Protein catabolism = Amino acid released & weight loss up to 0.5kg of lean body mass per day |
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Lipids
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- Naturally occurring molecule from a plant or animal that is soluble in nonpolar organic solvents but not in water
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Structure of Lipids
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- ESTERS and AMIDES of Carboxylic acids
- Long, straight chain hydrocarbons (fatty acids) - ex: Steroids = basic structure |
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Roles of Lipids
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- Energy storage
- Cell membrane (lipid bilayer) - Chemical messangers |
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Membrane Lipids
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1. Phospholipids = basic structure of cell membrane
2. Glycolipids 3. Cholesterol = form membrane |
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Composition of Cell Membrane
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- Phospholipid bilayer
- includes cholesterol, proteins (including glycoproteins), & glycolipids |
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Permeability & Transportation across the Cell Membrane
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- Simple vs. facilitated diffusion
- Active transport |
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Components of Body Fluid
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1. Intracellular fluid = 64%
2. Extracellular fluid = plasma & interstitial fluid = 33% 3. Interstitial fluid = 25% 4. plasma = 8% |
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Regulation of fluid Balance
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1. I & O
2. Kidneys 3. Hormone secretion (ADH) |
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Role of Kidneys in Fluid Balance
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Maintain H2O & electrolyte balance by increasing or decreasing amounts eliminated mediated by Hormones such as ADH
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2 Types of Hormones that affect Fluid Balance
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1. Osmoreceptors = in hypothalmus
2. Aquaporins |
