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68 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
monosaccharides
have a chemical formula of C6H12O6
-glucose
-galactose
-fructose
disaccharides
have the chemical formula C12H22o11
-Consist of 2 monosaccharides joined together, with one water molecule released
condensaition reaction/dyhydration reaction
monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other through loss of a water molecule
hydrolysis
the breakdown of polymers by adding water
polysaccharides
polymers of carbohydrates and are formed as many monosaccharides join together by dehydration sythesis
4 major types of polysaccharides
cellulose, starch, chitin, and glycogen
cellulose
makes up plant cell walls
starch
two forms are amylose and amylopectin (more complex than amylose. branched)
chitin
makes up the exoskeleton in arthropods (and cell walls in mushrooms)
glycogen
"animal starch"
in humans, this is stored in liver and skeletal muscle
lipids
a dirverse class of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids
fats are hydrophilic/hydrophobic
hydrophobic
structurally, most lipids consist of....
1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
fatty acid
a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end
saturated fats
-come from animals
-solids at room temperature
-when ingested in large quantities, lead to heart disease
-ONLY CONAIN SINGLE BONDS BETWEEN CARBON ATOMS
unsaturated fats
-extracted from plants
-liquid at room temperature
-considered to be good dietary fats
-have at least ONE DOUBLE BOND formed by the removal of hydrogen atoms in carbon skeleton
-hold fewer hydrogen atoms than saturated fats
steroids
lipids that do not have the same general structure as other lipids
-have 4 infused rings
lipids serve many functions....
1) energy storage
2) structural
3) endocrine
lipids serve in energy storage by
one gram of lipid will release 9 calories per gram when burned in a calorimeter
lipids serve in structural functions by
phospholipids are a major component of the cell membrane.
-one steroid, cholesterol, serve as an important component of the plasma membrane of animal cells
phospholipids
a lipid where a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid
lipids serve in endocrine functions by...
some steroids are hormones
proteins are complex macromolecules that carry out many function in the body including
1) growth and repair
2) signaling from one cell to another
3) defense against invaders
4) catalyzing chemical reactions
polypeptides
polymers of protein
made up of amino acids
amino acids are joined together by_____bonds to make up a polypeptide
peptide bonds
dipeptide
a molecule consisting of two amino acids connected by one peptide bond
each protein has a unique conformation or___
shape that determines what job it performs and how it functions
primary structure of a protein's conformation
refers to the unique linear sequence of amino acids
sickle cell anemia
a life threatening condition that results from a substitution of one amino acid for another in a molecule of hemoglobin
Fred Sanger
the first the sequence a protein.
-sequenced INSULIN
secondary structure of a protein
it results from HYRDROGEN BONDING within the polypeptide molecule
-refers to how the polypeptide coils or foils into 2 distinct shapes: alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet
fibrous proteins
proteins that exhibit alpha helix or pleated sheet in the secondary structure
keratin
protein that makes up hair.
-composed mostly of alpha helixes
protein that makes up hair
keratin
tertiary structure
the intricate 3 dimensional shape or conformation of a protein that is superimposed on its secondary structure
-determines the protein's SPECIFICITY
the following factors contribute to the tertiary structure:
1) hydrogen bonding between R groups and amino acids
2) ionic bonding between R groups
3) hydrophobic interactions
4) disulfid bonds between cysteine amino acids
quaternary structure
refers to proteins that consist of more than one polypeptide chain.
how does hemoglobin exhibit quarternary structure
consists of 4 polypeptide chains, each one forming a heme group
the protein folding problem
-the form of a molecule determines the function of the molecule
-scientists still don't understand all the rules of how proteins spontaneously fold into their unique shapes
chaperone proteins
assist in folding other proteins
DNA or RNA are made up of
nucleotides
a nucleotide consists of a
phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen base
pyrimidines
cytosine and thymine
-6 membered ring of carbon
purines
larger with a six membered ring fused to a five membered ring
ADENINE and GUANINE
amino acids contain these functional groups...
an amino group and a carboxyl group
1st law of thermodynamics
energy can't be created or destroyed, only transferred
law of conservation of energy is also called...
1st law of thermodynamics
-energy can't be created or destroyed, only transfered
2nd law of thermodynamics
in the course of energy conversions, the universe becomes more disordered.
you can measure disorder with the equation...
gibbs free energy
change in G=Change in H-(T)(change in S)
metabolism
the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in cells
catabolism
reactions that break down molecules
anabolism
reactions that build up molecules
pathways
metabolic reactions take place in a series of PATHWAYS, each which serves a specific function
do enzymes provide energy for a reaction?
NO. they serve as catalytic proteins that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
activation energy
the amount of energy needed to begin a reaction
enzymes exhibit_____structure
tertiary
enzymes can bind with random/specific substrates
specific
induced fit model of enzymes
as a substrate enters the active site, it induces the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so the substrate fits better
can enzymes be reused?
yes
cofactors
assist enzymes (INORGANIC)
coenzymes
VITAMINS
-assist enzymes
efficiency of enzymes affected by...
pH and temperature
competitive inhibition
some compounds resemble the normal substrate molecule and compete for the same active site on the enzyme
competetive inhibitors
the mimics that reduce the productivity of enzymes by preventing the substrate from combining with the enzyme
noncompetitive inhibition
the enzyme contains more than one active site and the substrates do not resemble each other
operon
-example on noncompetitive inhibition
-the binding of the repressor to the operator on the DNA strand blocks the binding site for the RNA polymerase and no transcription occurs
allosteric inhibition
involves 2 active sites, one for a substrate and one for an inhibitor
what happens during allosteric inhibition
1) when an inhibitor binds to the allosteric site, the enzme undergoes a conformational change
2) active site is altered,
3) enzyme cannot catalyze the reaction