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68 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
monosaccharides
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have a chemical formula of C6H12O6
-glucose -galactose -fructose |
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disaccharides
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have the chemical formula C12H22o11
-Consist of 2 monosaccharides joined together, with one water molecule released |
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condensaition reaction/dyhydration reaction
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monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other through loss of a water molecule
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hydrolysis
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the breakdown of polymers by adding water
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polysaccharides
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polymers of carbohydrates and are formed as many monosaccharides join together by dehydration sythesis
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4 major types of polysaccharides
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cellulose, starch, chitin, and glycogen
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cellulose
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makes up plant cell walls
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starch
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two forms are amylose and amylopectin (more complex than amylose. branched)
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chitin
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makes up the exoskeleton in arthropods (and cell walls in mushrooms)
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glycogen
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"animal starch"
in humans, this is stored in liver and skeletal muscle |
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lipids
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a dirverse class of organic compounds that include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids
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fats are hydrophilic/hydrophobic
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hydrophobic
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structurally, most lipids consist of....
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1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids
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fatty acid
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a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end
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saturated fats
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-come from animals
-solids at room temperature -when ingested in large quantities, lead to heart disease -ONLY CONAIN SINGLE BONDS BETWEEN CARBON ATOMS |
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unsaturated fats
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-extracted from plants
-liquid at room temperature -considered to be good dietary fats -have at least ONE DOUBLE BOND formed by the removal of hydrogen atoms in carbon skeleton -hold fewer hydrogen atoms than saturated fats |
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steroids
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lipids that do not have the same general structure as other lipids
-have 4 infused rings |
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lipids serve many functions....
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1) energy storage
2) structural 3) endocrine |
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lipids serve in energy storage by
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one gram of lipid will release 9 calories per gram when burned in a calorimeter
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lipids serve in structural functions by
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phospholipids are a major component of the cell membrane.
-one steroid, cholesterol, serve as an important component of the plasma membrane of animal cells |
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phospholipids
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a lipid where a phosphate group replaces one fatty acid
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lipids serve in endocrine functions by...
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some steroids are hormones
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proteins are complex macromolecules that carry out many function in the body including
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1) growth and repair
2) signaling from one cell to another 3) defense against invaders 4) catalyzing chemical reactions |
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polypeptides
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polymers of protein
made up of amino acids |
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amino acids are joined together by_____bonds to make up a polypeptide
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peptide bonds
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dipeptide
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a molecule consisting of two amino acids connected by one peptide bond
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each protein has a unique conformation or___
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shape that determines what job it performs and how it functions
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primary structure of a protein's conformation
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refers to the unique linear sequence of amino acids
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sickle cell anemia
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a life threatening condition that results from a substitution of one amino acid for another in a molecule of hemoglobin
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Fred Sanger
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the first the sequence a protein.
-sequenced INSULIN |
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secondary structure of a protein
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it results from HYRDROGEN BONDING within the polypeptide molecule
-refers to how the polypeptide coils or foils into 2 distinct shapes: alpha helix or a beta pleated sheet |
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fibrous proteins
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proteins that exhibit alpha helix or pleated sheet in the secondary structure
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keratin
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protein that makes up hair.
-composed mostly of alpha helixes |
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protein that makes up hair
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keratin
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tertiary structure
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the intricate 3 dimensional shape or conformation of a protein that is superimposed on its secondary structure
-determines the protein's SPECIFICITY |
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the following factors contribute to the tertiary structure:
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1) hydrogen bonding between R groups and amino acids
2) ionic bonding between R groups 3) hydrophobic interactions 4) disulfid bonds between cysteine amino acids |
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quaternary structure
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refers to proteins that consist of more than one polypeptide chain.
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how does hemoglobin exhibit quarternary structure
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consists of 4 polypeptide chains, each one forming a heme group
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the protein folding problem
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-the form of a molecule determines the function of the molecule
-scientists still don't understand all the rules of how proteins spontaneously fold into their unique shapes |
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chaperone proteins
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assist in folding other proteins
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DNA or RNA are made up of
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nucleotides
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a nucleotide consists of a
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phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and a nitrogen base
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pyrimidines
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cytosine and thymine
-6 membered ring of carbon |
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purines
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larger with a six membered ring fused to a five membered ring
ADENINE and GUANINE |
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amino acids contain these functional groups...
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an amino group and a carboxyl group
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1st law of thermodynamics
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energy can't be created or destroyed, only transferred
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law of conservation of energy is also called...
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1st law of thermodynamics
-energy can't be created or destroyed, only transfered |
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2nd law of thermodynamics
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in the course of energy conversions, the universe becomes more disordered.
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you can measure disorder with the equation...
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gibbs free energy
change in G=Change in H-(T)(change in S) |
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metabolism
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the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in cells
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catabolism
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reactions that break down molecules
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anabolism
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reactions that build up molecules
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pathways
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metabolic reactions take place in a series of PATHWAYS, each which serves a specific function
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do enzymes provide energy for a reaction?
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NO. they serve as catalytic proteins that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy
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activation energy
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the amount of energy needed to begin a reaction
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enzymes exhibit_____structure
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tertiary
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enzymes can bind with random/specific substrates
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specific
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induced fit model of enzymes
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as a substrate enters the active site, it induces the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so the substrate fits better
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can enzymes be reused?
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yes
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cofactors
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assist enzymes (INORGANIC)
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coenzymes
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VITAMINS
-assist enzymes |
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efficiency of enzymes affected by...
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pH and temperature
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competitive inhibition
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some compounds resemble the normal substrate molecule and compete for the same active site on the enzyme
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competetive inhibitors
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the mimics that reduce the productivity of enzymes by preventing the substrate from combining with the enzyme
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noncompetitive inhibition
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the enzyme contains more than one active site and the substrates do not resemble each other
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operon
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-example on noncompetitive inhibition
-the binding of the repressor to the operator on the DNA strand blocks the binding site for the RNA polymerase and no transcription occurs |
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allosteric inhibition
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involves 2 active sites, one for a substrate and one for an inhibitor
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what happens during allosteric inhibition
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1) when an inhibitor binds to the allosteric site, the enzme undergoes a conformational change
2) active site is altered, 3) enzyme cannot catalyze the reaction |