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120 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Glial Cells
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-Repairs, supports, and protects neurons
-Doesn't transport info -90% in brain-majority in CNS -Can regenerate as needed |
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Types of Glial Cells
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1)Oligodendrocytes-CNS-brain & spinal cord
2)Schwann Cells-PNS - build up myelin sheaths 3)Microglia-smallest-clean debris, remove waste-trigger inflammatory response 4)Astrocytes-largest-part of blood brain barrier 5)Ependymal-line central canal of spinal cord 6)Satellite-help regrowth of muscle fibers |
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Neurons-Types
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1)Sensory Neurons(Afferent)- specialized at 1 end to be sensitive to stimulation (touch)
2)Motor Neurons(Efferent)- Receives excitation signals & conducts impulses to muscles |
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Afferent vs. Efferent Neurons
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1)Afferent - brings info into a structure-towards CNS - unipolar - 1 process
2)Efferent - Carries info away from CNS to muscles-Multipolar Neuron- |
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Interneurons
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-Integrate activity within a brain structure
-Cells dendrites are entirely contained within a single structure and axon -Intrinsic Neuron -only communicates with other cells -Only found in CNS |
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Neuron Anatomy
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1.Dendrites-branching fibers carry nerve impulses to cell body-important for long term changes, learning, memory
2.Cell Body- -Nuclues-contains DNA 3.Axon-long narrow fiber that carry impulses away from cell body 4.Terminal Bouton(presynaptic terminal)-releases chemicals to cross to next neuron-small nodules containing chemicals 5.Myelin Sheath-fatty tissue around axon-adds speed to impulse conduction-helps prevent electrical current from leaving axon |
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Dualism
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Belief that mind and body are different kinds of substance-mental and physical substance-that exist independently
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Genes
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-Units of heredity that maintain structural identify from 1 generation to another-Come in pairs=Alleles
-Dominant Gene-Strong effect in either homozygous or heterozygous-prominent in women -Recessive Gene-Effect only in homozygous-prominent in men |
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Sex-Limited Genes
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-Present in both sexes but have effects mainly or exclusively in 1 sex
-Activated by sex hormones & makes effect evident in 1 sex or the other |
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Mutation
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-Change in single gene
-Rare and random -Source of gene variation - |
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Depolarization
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-Reduction of polarization
-Decrease negative charge - move toward 0 -EPSP -when sodium enters |
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Hyperpolarization
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-Increased polarization
-Increase negative -IPSP -potassium leaves |
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EPSP
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Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential
-Graded polarization -occurs when sodium enters -depolarization |
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IPSP
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Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential
-Temporary hyperpolarization -Occurs when synaptic input selectively opens gates for potassium to leave |
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Concentration Gradient
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-Difference in distribution of ions across the membrane
-Sodium is more concentrated outside the cell so more likely to enter the cell |
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Electrical Gradient
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-Difference in electrical charge between inside & outside of cell
-Pulls potassium in because it has a negative charge -Potassium is more concentrated inside cell so concentration gradient pushes it out |
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Sodium-Potassium Pump
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3Sodium:2Potassium
-uses 40% of cells energy -Transports 3 sodium out while drawing 2 potassium in |
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Resting Potential
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-Electrical potential across a membrane when a neuron is not being stimulated
-When at rest--steady negative inside axon |
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Threshold of Excitation
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-Level of depolarization at which a brief stimulation triggers rapid, massive electrical change by the membrane
-Stimulus beyond certain level produces massive depolarization -When threshold is met-->Action Potential |
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Nucleus Accumbens
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-Structure involved in addiction
-Lots of dopamine receptors -Major part of reinforcement system |
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Types of Receptors
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1)Ionotropic-Open & close quick - Direct opening
2)Metabotropic-Initiates sequence of internal molecular events which in turn open specific ion channels -can open & close channels -Autoreceptors-bind to own neuron |
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Dopamine
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-Only in CNS
-Excitatory or inhibitory -Involved In: coordinated movement, reward/reinforcement -Schizophrenia: -Parkinson's-loss of dopamine in substantia nigra |
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Norepinephrine
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-PNS-Fight/Flight
-CNS-Arousal, sustained & selective attention -Can function as hormone when released into blood |
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Serotonin
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-PNS-Cardiovascular regulation, smooth muscle, GI functions
-CNS-sleep/wake |
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Directions in CNS
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-Dorsal-top & toward back
-Ventral-bottom & toward stomach -Coronal- (|) -Horizontal- (--) -Medial(Mid-Sagittal)- Front square plane |
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PNS
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Located outside brain & spine
1)Somatic -voluntary -Always excitatory -skeletal muscle 2)Autonomic -involuntary -smooth muscle -excitatory or inhibitory 3 Divisions: (1)Sympathetic, (2)Parasympathetic, (3)Enteric |
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Autonomic NS
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1)Sympathetic-Fight/Flight, Exercise, excitement, emergency
2)Parasympathetic-Vegetative responses-Rest, relaxation, digestion... 3)Enteric-Regulates digestion, 2nd brain=gut feeling, own neurons |
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Lobes of Brain
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1)Frontal Lobe
2)Parietal Lobe 3)Temporal Lobe 4)Occipital Lobe |
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Frontal Lobe
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-Higher cognitive functions, executive functioning, problem solving, judgment...
Structures: 1.Broca's Area-Language production 2.Prefrontal Cortex-executive functions 3.Motor Cortex-Precentral Gyrus=fine motor movements |
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Parietal Lobe
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-Sensations, spatial awareness, numerical info, hand-eye coordination
Strctures: 1.Somatosensory Cortex-touch sensations, info from muscles 2.Sensory Homunculus (Postcentral Gyrus) |
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Temporal Lobe
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-Emotions, memory, understanding music, aggressiveness, sexual behavior
Structures: 1.Primary Auditory Cortex 2.Wernicke's Area-Language comprehension |
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Occipital Lobe
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-Vision & recognition
Structures: 1.Primary visual cortex |
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Thalamus
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-Sensory relay center
-Movement -Aphasia-language impairment |
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Amygdala
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Emotions, Aggressions
-Kluver-Bucy syndrome |
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Hypothalamus
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-Controls Endocrine system (stress response cycle)
-Regulates body temp, food intake, thirst, sleep/wake cycle -Emotional responses & behaviors -Sexual activity |
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Basal Ganglia
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-Motor Control
-Parkinson's, Huntington's (when basal ganglia deteriorates) -3 Major Structures 1.Caudate Nucleus 2.Putamen 3.Globus Palidus |
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Corpus Callosum
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-Large set or bundles of axons that connect 2 hemispheres of the cerebral cortex
-messages relayed from 1 hemisphere to the other -Disconnection syndrome |
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Synaptogenesis
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-Rapid formation of new synapses
1.Axons sprout to innervate many targets 2.Axon target interactions cause target to choose which axon -Synapse Survival-Neurotrophic -Promotes neuron survival -Triggers apoptosis |
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Enriched Environment
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-Thicker cortex
-increased neuron connections -increased dendritic branching 1.Mind Activity 2.Physical Activity 3.Social Networking |
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Cerebrum
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-largest portion of brain-2 hemispheres
1.Corpus Callosum |
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Spinal Cord
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-White Matter=myelinated axons
-Gray Matter=Cell bodies, dendrites, 'H' Shape |
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Bell-Magendie Law
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-Dorsal fibers carry sensory info
-Ventral fibers carry motor info |
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Proliferation
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-New cell production -
-cells lining ventricles |
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Migration
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-Whole neurons move toward destination
-neocortex is last layer to develop |
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Axons in CNS & PNS
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CNS-Axons don't grow back, don't regenerate
--why:oligodendrocytes don't provide guidance, scar tissue build up PNS-Axons Grow Back -Schwann cells provide guidance |
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Cellular Recovery
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-Axon regeneration
-Denervation supersensitivity -Rerouting -Sprouting |
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Structural Recovery
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-Amputation
-Brain can reorganize to account for loss -Requires somatosensory cortex |
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(Sleep)
Protein Production * |
-Per & Tim proteins build up
-Period & Timeless -Increase throughout the day -Highest at night -Interact with clock protein -Increase activity of neurons in SCN |
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Locus of Clock
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SCN-Suprachiasmatic Nucleus
-In hypothalamus -Damage abolishes sleep/wake cycle How the SCN Keeps Time--Proof -Still keeps time in culture dish |
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Tracts in Hypothalamus
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1.Tract Releases Histamine
2.Tract Releases Orexin (Hypocretin)--Stimulates Acetylcholine |
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Basal Forebrain
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-Acetylcholine Neurons
-GABA Neurons--required for sleep |
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Adenosine
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-Anti-inflammatory agents
-Inhibits neurons in Basal Forebrain that release Acetylcholine--Decreases arousal -Sleep Debt=Build up of Adenosine |
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Heat Production
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1.Metabolism (main method)
2.Exercise(voluntary) 3.Shivering 4.Radiation |
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Heat Loss
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1.Radiation-no contact
2.Conduction-contact 3.Convection-transfer to air/water 4.Evaporation-sweat -Temp regulation is interaction between internal regulation and behavior |
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Temp Regulation-Feedback Circuit
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Homeostasis-Maintenance of constant internal environment
Negative Feedback-Reduces discrepancies Positive Feedback-Stops negative feedback |
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BioBasis of Temp Regulation
(thermostat) * |
Hypothalamus
-Anterior Hypothalamus & Preoptic Area (AH/POA) -Thermostat of the Body |
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4 Stages of Sleep
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1)Floating stage-brief stage before sleep-Alpha & Theta waves
2)Daydreaming-3 characteristic 1.Theta Waves, 2.Sleep Spindles, 3.K Complex 3)Some delta wave, spindles decrease 4)Delta Waves - Synchronized NREM=2-4 |
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REM Sleep
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-occurs 80-100 min after sleep
-sleep lightens -Some Beta Wave -lasts about 10min Behavioral Characteristics -muscles relax(loss of tone) -rapid eye movement -dreams |
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Reticular Activating System
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Pontomesencephalon(Pon-Midbrain)
-maintains arousal-cortical arousal -Releases Acetylcholine & Glutamate -Stimulations results in awake Raphe Nuclei-releases serotonin |
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Clinico-Anatomical Hypothesis
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-dreams are similar to thinking, just under unusual circumstances
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Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis
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-Dreams are side effects of mental stimulation from pons
-Synthesis of motor & visual neuron firing with stored memories -Amygdala activation provides emotional context -Frontal cortices deactivated--allows for illogical dreams |
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Narcolepsy
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Not enough Orexin
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PGO Waves
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Pons
Geniculate Occipital -REM sleep-High amplitude electrical potentials |
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Volumetric (Hypovolemic) Thirst
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-Low body fluids-low blood volume
-Need Water & Salt Detection: 1.Baroreceptors on Venus Return 2.Kidney's 3.Adrenal Glands |
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Osmotic Thirst
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-Need Water
-Increased levels of salt produce thirst -Cellular dehydration Receptors: 1.Supraoptic Nucleus 2.OVLT & Subfornical Organ |
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Thirst Regulation
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Pituitary Gland:
-Releases Vasopressin-antidiuretic |
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Role of Hormones
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Estrogen/Progesterone:Increased sexual behavior
Testosterone:promotes sexual behavior in men Oxytocin: -females-social interaction & maternal behavior -males-cuddle hormone Prolactin: -females-milk production -males:inhibitory effect on sexual behavior-coolidge |
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Brain Structures-Sex-Females
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1)Ventromedial Hypothalamus
-center for female sex behavior -moderates Oxytocin release 2)Periaqueductal Gray -mediates influence of VMH |
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Brain Structures-Sex-Males
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1)Medial Preoptic Area
-sexual dimorphic nucleus-larger in males -increased dopamine & opioids released during sex & orgasm 2)Lateral Tegmental Area -some neurons only fire during sex |
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Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia
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CAH
-Too much testosterone -Adrenal glands secrete abnormal amounts of androgens -Males develop normally -Females develop external genitals |
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Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome
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-Individual with XY but is insensitive to Androgen
-Develops female external appearance -Develops as women without ovaries or uterus-testes stay internal -testes release enough estrogen to feminize body |
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Lipostatic Theory
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-Long term hunger regulation
-Fat monitoring system -Body fat cells produce leptin- more fat cells=more leptin -Obese people are less sensitive to leptin & have genetic inability to produce leptin |
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Orexin
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-Stimulates activity & onset of meals
-cells increase release of orexin only after prolonged food deprivation -motivates starving animal to search for food but has little influence on most meals |
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Arcuate Nucleus
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2 Inputs
1.Hunger Signals 2.Satiety Signals Melanocortin=Satiety Neuropeptide Y=Overating |
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Ventromedial Hypothalamus
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-Overeating
-Increase set point for weight -does not appear to result in death |
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Lateral Hypothalamus
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-Decrease eating
-Death if not force fed Response: -taste pathway, facilitates ingestion & swallowing, increases senses, food seeking behavior, insulin production, & stomach secretions (digestion) |
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Vagus Nerve
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Cranial Nerve X
-conveys info about stretching of stomach walls-->Satiety |
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Splanchnic Nerves
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conveys info about nutrient content of stomach
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Duodenum
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Part of small intestine adjoining the stomach
-1st digestive site that absorbs nutrients -when distended-->Satiety |
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Cholecystokinin
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CCK
-Limits meal size -released by duodenum (1)Closes sphincter muscle between stomach & duodenum so stomach fills quickly (2)Stimulates vagus nerve |
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Glucostatic Theory & Insulin
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-Hungry if glucose is low
Insulin -enables sugar to enter cells -stored as fat & carbs -Increases before, during, & after meals -High insulin level suppress appetite |
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Disgust
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-Provoked by bad taste or bad smell
Neural Mechanisms: (1)Insular Cortex:Primary taste region (2)Basal Ganglia |
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Lesions to Amygdala
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-effects of emotions on memory
-flashbulb memories -The more the Amygdala is damages, the less likely you'll remember emotionally charged memories |
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Aggression & Impulse Control
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Prefrontal Cortex=Faulty Emotional Regulation
-Areas in Emotional Regulation -(1)Orbitofrontal Cortex -(2)Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex |
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Effects of Chronic Stress
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-long levels of stress damage hippocampus
-Dendrite & axon retraction -Inhibition of hippocampal neurogenesis -long-term depression |
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General Adaptation Syndrome
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1)Alarm Stage(initial response)
-SNS arousal 2)Resistance Stage(Adaptation) -Release of cortisol -anti inflammatory,immunosupression 3)Exhaustion -resources depleted -damage to hippocampus |
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James-Lange Theory
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-Physiological Arousal
-Emotions are result of physiological change(not cause) 1)Cognitive Appraisal 2)Physiological response(ANS) 3)Situations elicit behavior 4)Brain receives sensory feedback from muscles & organs |
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Pure Autonomic Failure
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-report same emotions as others
-can identify emotions in others -Report feeling emotions less intensely (cognitive aspect) |
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3 Responses of Emotions
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1)Behavioral
2)Autonomic -SNS increases, PNS decreases 3)Hormonal -Nor/Epinephrine released -Adrenal glands secrete steroid hormones |
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Cannon-Bard Theory
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-Cognitive Appraisal
1)Feel Emotions 2)Physiological Change 3)Behavior |
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Central Nucleus
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-Most important part of brain for expression of emotional responses
-Expression of emotions |
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Serotonin & Emotions
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-Inhibits aggressive behaviors
-inhibits risky behaviors -Problem:linked with depression, not all depression is aggressive |
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Happiness
Heredity & Neural Mechanisms |
-50% momentary happiness=genetic
-80% set point for happiness Neural Mechanisms -Amygdala -Prefrontal Cortex --Right Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex=appreciating humor |
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HPA Axis & Stress
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Hypothalamus
Pituitary Adrenal Glands |
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Types of Memory
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1)Sensory Store
2)Working Memory 3)Long-Term Memory |
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Sensory Store
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250-500msec
1.Iconic Store 2.Echoic Store 3.Haptic Store |
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Working Memory
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1.Central Executive-directs attention toward 1 stimulus or another & determines which items will be stored in memory
2.Phonological Loop-auditory & words 3.Visuospatial Sketchpad- visual info |
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Long Term Memory
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1)Explicit
-conscious & intentional -1.Semantic-general facts -2.Episodic-events/episodes 2)Implicit -unconscious & Unintentional -priming, emotional response, procedural memory 3)Declarative-recall of factual info 4)Nondeclarative-recall of proceudres |
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Theories of Forgetting
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1)Decay Theory
2)Interference Theory 3)Context Theory |
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Decay Theory
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-older memories will always be more decayed than newer ones
-all memories decay at same rate-some start out stronger |
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Interference Theory
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1)Retroactive Interference- New memories interfere with old memories
2)Proactive Interference- Old memories interfere with new memories |
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Retrograde Amnesia
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-Forgot what you used to know
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Anterograde Amnesia
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-Unable to form new memories
-More common -frozen in time |
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Cortical Dementia
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-Alzheimer's-50% of all dementia
-Lewy-Body Dementia |
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Subcortical Dementia
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-Parkinson's
-Huntington's -Wilson's |
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Alzheimer's Disease-Deficits
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1)Memory-working & recent
-intact implicit & remote 2)Language-Anomia-1st sign-word finding problems |
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AD Neuropathology
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1)Plaques-formed from degenerating axons & dendrites - Produces by Amyloid
2)Neurofibrillary Tangles- formed from degenerating structures within cell bodies- produced by Tau 3)Neuronal Loss |
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AD
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Alzheimer's Disease
-characterized by memory loss, confusion, depression, restlessness, hallucinations, delusions, sleeplessness, loss of appetite |
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Mild-Cognitive Impairment
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-Transitional stage between cognitive changes of normal aging & more serious problems caused by AD
Characteristics: -Aware of deficits -1 cognitive domain -doesn't interfere with social/occupational function -"Risk Stage" |
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Long-Term Potentiation
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Plasticity
-learning 1)Synapses activated at high frequencies 2)Leave synapse more responsive to new input -Specificity-only active cells become strengthened -Associativity-pairing weak input with strong input enhances later response to weak input -Cooperativity-simultaneous stimulation produces stronger long-term potentiation |
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Broca's Aphasia
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Language Production
-Nonfluent Aphasia -Inability to produce meaningful speech -location of grammar -loss of fluent speech -impaired use & understanding or prepositions, word endings |
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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Language Comprehension
-Fluent Aphasia -Dissociation between words and meanings -Location of meaning -Poor language comprehension & difficulty remembering names of objects -Difficulty understanding speech |
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Dyslexia & Brain Structures
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-Underactivation of: Angular Gyrys & Wernicke's Area
-Decreased volume in Broca's Area |
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ADHD Neurotransmitters
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-Dopamine
-Norepinephrine Brain Structures: -Basal Ganglia -Smaller Prefrontal Cortex -95% or normal brain volume |
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Schizophrenia Neurodevelopment Hypothesis
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-Based on abnormalities in prenatal or neonatal development of nervous system which lead to subtle abnormalities of brain anatomy and major abnormalities in behavior
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Schizophrenia Brain Abnormalities
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1)Enlarged Ventricles
2)Smaller Prefrontal Cortex -less gray matter Causes: -seasonality effect -Virus -famine related -Thiamine deficiency -Toxin build up |
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Schizophrenia Dopamine Hypothesis
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-High levels of dopamine lead to positive symptoms
-More dopamine receptors -Twice as many D2 receptors |
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Schizophrenia Glutamate Hypothesis
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-Less than normal glutamate release (especially in prefrontal cortex)
-Stimulating NMDA receptors trigger insertion of dopamine receptors into membrane -Increased dopamine produces same effects as decreased glutamate |
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Depression & Sleep Patterns
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-More REM Sleep
-Fall asleep but awaken frequently and early -Enter REM within 45min & have more eye movements -Sleep deprivation relieves depression |
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Depression & Genes
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-Family 10x greater chance
-Twins 70% increase -Moderate degree of heritability -Elevated with relatives of women with early onset before age 30 -One gene showed 80% decrease in brains ability to produce serotonin --Serotonin transporter gene |
