Bio Test 2

Front 1

immune system

Back 1

a system of organs, tissues, cells, and cell products that protect and organism from foreign and potentially harmful organisms

Front 2

Types of immunity

Back 2

innate immunity and adaptive immunity

Front 3

innate immunity

Back 3

non-specific, genetic, or natural immunity. involves a set of defenses that are immediately active and undefended of previous encounters with a given pathogen or substance

Front 4

adaptive immunity

Back 4

acquired immunity; involves a set of defenses developed for, and active by specific pathogens or substances; "remembers" (specifically recognizes previously encountered pathogens)

Front 5

innate immunity in invertebrates

Back 5

exoskeleton, low internal pH, lysozyme, phagocytes, recognition proteins (binds to microbes and trigger the release of antimicrobial peptides)

Front 6

innate immunity in vertebrates

Back 6

barriers to entry and innate immune cells

Front 7

phagocytes

Back 7

naturally present in tissues, "stand guard," even sponges have them (called amebocytes)

Front 8

barriers to entry

Back 8

skin: dead, keratinized cells form an impermeable barrier

mucous membranes: form a sticky trap for microbes; ciliated cells sweep mucus and microbes into throat

Front 9

innate immune cells

Back 9

neutrophils

macrophage: "large" phagocytes that reside in and wanter through the interstitial fluids

natural killer cells: attack cancer cells and virus-infected cells

interferons

complement system

inflammatory response

Front 10

neutrophils

Back 10

"first responders" phagocytes circulate freely in blood; are attracted to infection sites; squeeze between cells of capillary walls

Front 11

interferons

Back 11

antiviral proteins produced by virus-infected cells that help to limit

Front 12

innate complement system

Back 12

complement proteins

Front 13

complement proteins

Back 13

a group of about 25-30 different blood plasma proteins that "complement" or enhance immune responses; produced by lives, normally circulate in the bloodstream, much be activated during an immure response; enhance inflammation and help target cells for destruction

Front 14

what mobilizes the innate immune response?

Back 14

inflammation

Front 15

inflammation

Back 15

inflammation is mediated by changes in capillaries in the damaged area; can be localized or widespread, sometimes accompanied by fever; triggers a co-localized innate immune response

Front 16

what signals a damaged tissue in the case of a splinter?

Back 16

collagen

Front 17

adaptive immunity

Back 17

found only in vertebrates; a second line of defense; slower that innate defenses; HIGHLY specific (antigens); "remembers" previously encounters antigens or pathogens; involves B Cell and T Cell (lymphocytes); often referred to as "acquired immunity"

Front 18

give an example of adaptive immunity

Back 18

vaccines; chicken pox

Front 19

vaccines

Back 19

comprised of dead or attenuated pathogens (or fragments); immune system builds up a first-time defense to the pathogen (includes production of antibodies and specific "memory" lymphocytes; immune system protects against future infections or attacks by the same pathogen

Front 20

active immunity

Back 20

getting exposed to something and mounting a physiological response; immunity that occurs when an individual produces his own supply of antibodies, either by exposure to a foreign entity or by immunization

Front 21

passive immunity

Back 21

temporary immunity that occurs when an individual is given previously prepared antibodies to prevent a disease; treatments for rabies and snakebites (anti-venom); unborn children and breastfed infants

Front 22

lymphatic system

Back 22

comprised of lymph vessels and noes, thymus, spleen, tonsils, and adenoids; functions closely with the circulatory system

Front 23

what are the functions of the lymphatic system?

Front 24

how does lymphatic fluid return?

Back 24

via the left and right subclavian veins

Front 25

what are the consequences of a poorly functioning lymphatic system?

Back 25

lymphedema (poor drainage of fluids from limb which typically only affects a single limb; caused by cancer, cancer treatment, and surgery); elephantiasis (a tropical disease caused by the filarial roundworm parasite Wuchereria bancrofti that lives in lymphatic vessels)

Front 26

lymphocytes

Back 26

mount an adaptive immune response

Front 27

what are swollen/sensitive glands a sign of?

Back 27

that body is fighting off an infection

Front 28

what is lymphatic fluid "filtered" by?

Back 28

lymph nodes where resident macrophages engulf and destroy any foreign debris and or invaders

Front 29

tonsils and adenoids

Back 29

comprised of "lymphoid" tissue (like lymph nodes) and contain lymphocytes, macrophages, and antibodies; trap and destroy and serve as a defense again ingested or inhaled bacteria and viruses; become swollen and irritated when very active; may be removed if troublesome

Front 30

what is the location of the tonsils?

Back 30

throat

Front 31

what is the location of the adenoids?

Back 31

the back of the nasal cavity; only visible if a microscope is inserted into the naval cavity

Front 32

humoral immune response

Back 32

involves the production and secretion of fee-floating antibodies into the bloodstream and lymphatic fluids by B Cell Lymphocytes

Front 33

cell-mediated immune response

Back 33

involves T Cell Lymphocytes

Front 34

T Cell Lymphocytes

Front 35

common properties of T and B Cells

Back 35

originate in bone marrow from stem cells; genes for antigen receptors are scrambled; each cell can produce only one type of antigen receptor; millions of "receptor unique" cells take residence in the lymphatic system (each cell can bind only on type of antigen); mature cells are transported to lymphatic organs

Front 36

differences in T and B Cells

Back 36

B cells: mature in marrow

T cells: mature in thymus

Front 37

antigens

Back 37

molecules that elicit the adaptive immune response; they usually do not belong to the host animal; typically proteins or large polysaccharides on the surfaces of viruses or foreign cells

Front 38

antigenic determinants

Back 38

specific regions on an antigen where antibodies bind; an antigen usually has several different determinants; the antigen-binding site of an antibody and an antigenic determinant have complement

Front 39

clonal section (clonal recruitment)

Back 39

the process whereby genetically unique (naive or virgin) lymphocytes react with (recognize) their specific antigen for the very first time; stimulates their mitotic proliferation

Front 40

immunoglobins

Back 40

Y shaped protein receptor; produced by B cell lymphocytes; 4 polypeptide chains (two heavy and two light chains); each peptide chain has both variable and constant regions and can only bind with one specific antigen; all function to mark antigens for destruction via phagocytes

Front 41

humoral

Back 41

refers to non-cellular substances that occur in the fluids (especially blood) of the body; antibodies are the most common "non-cellular" substance

Front 42

neutralization

Back 42

blocks viral binding sites; cotes bacteria

Front 43

agglutination

Back 43

of microbes

Front 44

is an antigen with bound antibodies effective or ineffective?

Back 44

ineffective

Front 45

bound antibodies

Back 45

serve as signal flags for phagocytosis by macrophages

Front 46

precipitations

Back 46

happens for small antigens, proteins, etc; they are dissolved

Front 47

complement system

Back 47

a complex of complement proteins binds to free end/stalk of antibody. The binding triggers the release of complement proteins (that is now very close to the foreign cell). These then insert into the foreign cell membrane to form a pore or channel through which water can freely enter causing lysis.

Front 48

ELISA

Back 48

Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assays

Front 49

HER2

Back 49

human epidermal growth factor 2; gene/protein is over expressed in cancerous cells where it transmits chemical signals that promotes growth and survival of cancerous cells

Front 50

herceptin

Back 50

a genetically engineered mAB that binds to HER2, thereby slowing the progress of cancer

Front 51

example of an ELISA

Back 51

early pregnancy test (detects HCG or human chorionic gonadotropin)

Front 52

T Cell Lymphocytes

Back 52

trigger humoral and cell-mediated immune response; they have to be "activated," which occurs by encountering their first antigen; "antigen presenting cells;" can activate: B cell lymphocytes (humoral response) and Cytotoxic T cells (cell-mediated response)

Front 53

antigen presentation

Back 53

foreign cell, pathogen, or particle is phagocytize by a macrophage; particle is degraded into smaller antigen fragments that are attached to self proteins; self/non-self antigen complex is secreted to the cell surface for presentation to T cells

Front 54

Natural Killer Cells

Back 54

cells that look only for infected cells that have lost "self markers;" when found, NK cells kill them in a manner similar to cytotoxic t cells

Front 55

molecular fingerprint

Back 55

all cells of the human body display the same set of "self" proteins (aka as "MHC" proteins); 14 major complexes

Front 56

autoimmune disease

Back 56

the immune system fails to distinguish between foreign antigens and "self" antigens; cytotoxic t cells and antibodies attack the bodies own cells; juvenile diabetes and rheumatoid arthritis

Front 57

immunodeficiency disease

Back 57

(besides AIDS) where an immune response is defective or absent; SCID and cancer therapy

Front 58

allergies

Back 58

fast, hypersensitive, overreactions of the immune system to normally harmless antigens; sensitization and over reaction

Front 59

type 1 (juvenile) diabetes

Back 59

insulin-producing cells of pancreas (islets) are destroyed; blood glucose levels cannot be regulated; insulin injections are required

Front 60

rheumatoid arthritis

Back 60

inflammation of cartilage and bone of joints, leading to their destruction, weakening of tendons and ligaments, and joint deformation

Front 61

SCID

Back 61

severe combined immunodeficiency; aka "bubble boy disease;" genetically inherited (x-linked) disease involving numerous defects in the numbers of functions of B Cells, T Cells, and NK Cells (any immune response is essentially absent); without treatment, afflicted individuals must be kept in a sterile environment; can be treated with bone marrow transplants

Front 62

cancer therapy

Back 62

radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy; targets actively dividing (cancer) cells; may compromise the immune system

Front 63

David Vetter

Back 63

born in 1971; died at age 12 as he awaited a bone marrow transplant to treat his SCID

Front 64

sensitization

Back 64

the very first exposure to an allergen; the antigen elicits the allergen

Front 65

over reaction

Back 65

over-stimulation of the inflammatory response during a later exposure to the same antigen; can be life-threatening or fatal

Front 66

steps of sensitization

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1. allergen enters the bloodstream

2. virgin b cells are recruited to produce antibodies

3. b cells develop into plasma cells that release antibodies

4. antibodies attach to mast cells

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steps of over reaction

Back 67

5. allergen enters the body a second time and binds to the antibodies on mast cells

6. mast cells release histamine, which triggers the inflammatory response

7. inflammation of nasal membranes results in typical allergy symptoms (runny nose, tearing eyes, sneezing)

Front 68

anaphylactic shock

Back 68

an immediate and severe allergic reaction that occurs when an allergen enters the bloodstream and affects the entire body (insect stings, medications, foods

Front 69

main symptoms of anaphylactic shock

Back 69

sudden drop in blood pressure and rapid swelling of tissues (including tissues around airways), hives, due to histamine-induced capillary permeability and release of fluids into body tissues

Front 70

main treatments for anaphylactic shock

Back 70

injection with adrenaline (increases blood pressure, expands airways, constricts blood vessel) and antihistamines (to counter act the massive histamine release; benadryl, zyrtec, claritin)

Front 71

homeostasis

Back 71

the maintenance of steady normal (optimal) internal conditions of a cell or organism by internal control mechanisms in the face of opposing and fluctuating external conditions

Front 72

examples of homeostatic process

Back 72

blood pH, oxygen and glucose levels, accumulation and elimination of wastes, body temperature, cellular/bodily solute and water content

Front 73

thermoregulation

Back 73

a form of homeostasis by which animals maintain an internal temperature within a tolerable range

Front 74

endotherms

Back 74

"warm-blooded" animals that warm themselves via heat derived from their own metabolism

Front 75

ectotherms

Back 75

"cold-blooded" animals that warm themselves by absorbing heat from their surroundings

Front 76

conduction

Back 76

the transfer of heat by direct contact

Front 77

convection

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the transfer of heat by movement of air or liquid past a surface

Front 78

radiation

Back 78

the absorption or emission of electromagnetic waves

Front 79

evaporation

Back 79

the loss of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as a gas

Front 80

metabolic heat production

Back 80

increased rates of metabolism give off more heat (vigorous exercises and shivering)

Front 81

insulation

Back 81

such as hair, feathers, and fat

Front 82

other than humans, what shivers?

Back 82

honey bees cluster and shiver to help keep the bee hive warm in the winter; they vibrate their flight muscles but keep their wings still. They can keep the temperature of the hive around 93 degrees

Front 83

circulatory system adaptations for homeostasis

Back 83

counter current heat exchange; changes in blood blow to/from skin

Front 84

counter-current heat exchange

Back 84

essentially re-warms the blood back close to core body temperature, so that cold blood is not returning to the core

Front 85

evaporative cooling

Back 85

sweating, panting, spreading saliva

Front 86

examples of spreading saliva

Back 86

cats, mice, kangaroos spread saliva on their fur to cool off

Front 87

what is the function of the elephant's large ears?

Back 87

their are many blood vessels in the ears of the elephants that can cool the blood quickly, helping them lower the temperature of their blood by approximately 10 degrees celcius

Front 88

behavioral responses

Back 88

movement to warm vs. cold environment (migration) and bathing

Front 89

osmoregulation

Back 89

homeostatic control and balance in the uptake and loss of water and solutes such as salt and other ions

Front 90

osmoconformers

Back 90

animals with body fluids having a solute concentration equal to that of seawater, thus without major challenges in water balance (includes many marine invertebrates like squid, star fish, sharks, and anemones)

Front 91

osmoregulators

Back 91

animals with body fluids having solute concentrations that greatly differ from their environment (includes land animals, freshwater fish, and marine vertebrates)

Front 92

what do anemones have to help osmoregulate?

Back 92

a contractile vacuole

Front 93

what cellular solutes are involved in osmoregulation?

Back 93

Na +, K +, Ca 2+, Cl -, PO4 3-

Front 94

what toxic molecules need to be eliminated?

Back 94

NH3 (ammonia) and CO2

Front 95

hypotonic (gain water by osmosis) animal

Back 95

freshwater fish

Front 96

hypertonic (lose water by osmosis) animal

Back 96

saltwater fish

Front 97

animal that loses water by evaporation

Back 97

land animals

Front 98

osmoregulation in land animals (cons)

Back 98

face the risk of dehydrations, lose water by evaporation and water disposal, gain water by drinking and eating

Front 99

how land animals conserve water

Back 99

reproductive adaptations, behavioral adaptations, waterproof skin, efficient kidneys

Front 100

reproductive adaptations

Back 100

laying eggs and fertilization in watery habitats; development of the "amniotic egg" (w/a waterproof coating or shell)

Front 101

kangaroo rats

Back 101

live in desert environments, produce most hypertonic urine, extremely dry fecal pellets, produce most water by cellular respirations; nocturnal behavior because it's much cooler at night for foraging; stays in a deep burrow during the day to keep cool

Front 102

how much water is produced for a single gram of CHO consumed?

Back 102

.6 grams of water is produced

Front 103

.6 grams of water is produced when what molecule is consumed?

Back 103

CHO

Front 104

What is the pH of ammonia?

Back 104

9-9.5

Front 105

ammonia (pros and cons)

Back 105

very soluble, but relatively toxic; cannot accumulate high concentrations; requires a lot of water for excretion; good for most fish and aquatic animals, excreted via gills and skin surfaces

Front 106

urea (pros and cons)

Back 106

less toxic, but still relatively soluble; can be accumulated to higher concentrations; allows for conservation of body water, but must be excreted with water; requires drinking; occurs in mammals, sharks, adult amphibians; toxic (denatures proteins) at high concentrations

Front 107

uric acid (pros and cons)

Back 107

non-toxic, poorly solubility in water; can be made highly concentrated; allows maximum water conservation; requires more complex metabolism and energy; excreted as semi-solid paste by birds, reptiles and insects; allows habitation with minimal water

Front 108

gout

Back 108

an arthritic disease involving the build up of uric acid crystals in the joints

Front 109

kidney stones

Back 109

crystallized precipitates of calcium oxalate, uric acid or cystine that variously form in the ducts of the kidney; impair/block normal kidney function

Front 110

organs in the urinary tract

Back 110

kidneys, renal artery and vein, ureter, urinary bladder, urethra

Front 111

kidneys

Back 111

produce urine

Front 112

renal artery and vein

Back 112

transport blood to and from the kidneys

Front 113

ureter

Back 113

conducts urine from the kidney to urinary bladder

Front 114

urinary bladder

Back 114

stores urine until voided from the body

Front 115

urethra

Back 115

conducts urine from the urinary bladder to the exterior of the body

Front 116

what are the two main functions of the urinary system?

Back 116

form and excrete urine and regulate water and solute content in body fluids

Front 117

how many nephrons does a normal human kidney contain?

Back 117

800,000 to 1.5 million nephrons

Front 118

nephron

Back 118

the functional unit of the kidney; the smallest piece of the kidney that has all of the necessary pieces to carry out kidney function

Front 119

glomerular capsule

Back 119

blood does NOT flow into the glomerulus; also known as "Bowman's Capsule"; where filtration of the blood occurs and clean blood is sent to the renal vein while water and solutes are sent to the renal pelvis through a nephron tubule

Front 120

how much blood passes through the kidney capillaries a day?

Back 120

1000-2000 L in a single day

Front 121

filtrations

Back 121

takes places in the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule; water and small molecules pass and proteins and cells are retained

Front 122

glomerular capillaries

Back 122

100x more permeable than other capillaries

Front 123

reabsorption

Back 123

by capillaries surrounding proximal and distal convoluted tubules; reclaims valuable solutes such as glucose, salts, and amino acids which are returned to the blood stream

Front 124

secretion

Back 124

by capillaries surrounding proximal and distal convoluted tubules; includes harmful compounds not filtered into the glomerulus (residual ammonia, uric acid

Front 125

excretion

Back 125

from kidneys via ureter, bladder, and urethra

Front 126

creatinine

Back 126

a breakdown product of creatine

Front 127

Reabsorption of _______ and secretion of _____ helps to control blood pH

Back 127

HCO3 - and H +

Front 128

Active reabsorption of _______ results in ___________ of water via osmosis

Back 128

NaCl and passive reabsorption

Front 129

antidiuretic hormone

Back 129

vasopressin; a peptide hormone stored and released by posterior pituitary glad; increase water absorption (and thus decreases volume of urine produced( by kidneys; results in higher water retention and higher blood pressure

Front 130

aldosterone

Back 130

steroidhormone released by adrenal gland; promotes excretion of K+ and reabsorption of Na+ by convoluted tubules; Na+ reabsorption is followed by water reabsorption; results in increasedwater retention, higher blood pressure & greater blood volume.

Front 131

atrial natriuretic hormone

Back 131

secretedby the atria of the heart when cardiac cells are stretched due to increasedblood volume; inhibits the release ofaldosterone; thus promotes theexcretion of Na+& water, which is accompanied bydecreased blood volume& pressure.

Front 132

diuretic

Back 132

a drug (or chemical) that promotes the formation and elimination of urine from the body; they carious function by counteracting the effects of ADH

Front 133

diuretics are prescribed to treat what?

Back 133

hypertension (high blood pressure) and congestive heart failure

Front 134

common diuretics

Back 134

beverages containing caffeine and alcohol; some foods and herbs such as hawthorne, dandelion, and celery

Front 135

symptoms of kidney stones

Back 135

persistent extreme pain in back or side; blood in the urine; fever, chills, vomiting, urgency; burning feeling during urination

Front 136

endocrine system

Back 136

a homeostatic information signal system comprised of a series of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream in order to regulate various functions of the body, including growth and development, metabolism, and reproduction (works closely with the nervous system

Front 137

hormones

Back 137

chemical signal molecules that facilitate communication between cells, body parts, or individuals and initiate or elicit a cascade of specific physiological effects (may be released from specialize neurons called neurosecretory cells)

Front 138

hypothalamus

Back 138

cross-road between the nervous system and the endocrine system; receives input from nerves about the internal conditions of the body and the external environment; responds by sending out appropriate nervous endocrine signals; uses (controls) the pituitary gland to exert master control over the endocrine system

Front 139

sensory neurons

Back 139

transmit a nerve impulse to specialized neurosecretory cells

Front 140

neurosecretory cells

Back 140

release signal molecules into cells that promote a physiological response

Front 141

water-soluble hormones

Back 141

amino acid derived proteins, peptides, and amines

Front 142

lipid-soluble hormones

Back 142

small, hydrophobic molecules derived from cholesterol

Front 143

oxytocin

Back 143

a nine amino acid peptide hormone that stimulates labor contractions and milk letdown

Front 144

stages of hormone signaling

Back 144

reception, signal transduction, response

Front 145

reception

Back 145

recognition (binding) of the signal molecule by specific receptor proteins

Front 146

signal transduction

Back 146

a cascade of events that sequentially amplifies and converts the signal from one form to another

Front 147

response

Back 147

where there is a change in the behavior of the receptor cell

Front 148

mechanism of action for water soluble hormones

Back 148

1. hormone binds to plasma membrane receptors on target cells

2. signal transduction cascade is initiated inside the cell (relay molecules trigger a series of activations and amplifications of stimulus)

3. the final relay molecule activates a protein that carries out the cell response (enzymes in cytoplasm; transcription factors in nucleus)

Front 149

mechanism of action for steroid hormones

Back 149

1. steroid hormone passes through plasma membrane and into the nucleus by diffusion

2. binds to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm to form a hormone-receptor complex

3. the HRC acts as a transcription factor (bound HRC act as a gene enhancer or silencer)

4. gene expression (transcription) is turned on or off to bring about a cellular response

Front 150

fight or flight response

Back 150

brain senses and "emergency situation", hypothalamus sends nerve impulse directly to the adrenal gland (medulla) which then secretes adrenaline

Front 151

note about adrenaline

Back 151

adrenaline is technically a "peptide" hormone; it is derived from phenylalanine --> tyrosine (hydroxylation of the ring, decarboxylation, hydroxylation of the aliphatic chain, methylation of the amino group)

Front 152

glands of the vertebrate endocrine system

Back 152

anterior and posterior pituitary, thyroid and parathyroid, adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla, alpha cells (glucagon) and beta cells (insulin) of pancreas, testes and ovaries

Front 153

endocrine glands

Back 153

ductless glands that secrete hormones into the interstitial spaces around the cells where they then diffuse into nearby capillaries and are then carried to all other parts of the body via the bloodstream

Front 154

exocrine glands

Back 154

glands that secrete substances (other than hormones) directly to the surface of an epithelial tissue via a well-defined duct

Front 155

pineal gland

Back 155

pea-sized (5mm-8mm) "pine cone" shaped endocrine gland centrally located at the top back side of the brain stem; "third eye" because its sensitivity to light in some vertebrates; receives sensory information from the eyes in humans; produces and secretes melatonin at night (regulates circadian rhythms (sleep-wake cycles) and causes drowsiness, lowers body temperature)

Front 156

the third eye

Back 156

aka the "parietal eye"; found in reptiles and some amphibians; thin membrane covering the pineal gland, giving light direct access to the gland

Front 157

thymus gland

Back 157

a lobular gland just behind the breastbone and in front of the trachea and heart; secretes thymosins (peptide hormones); act only in the thymus, promote the differentiation of lymphocytes (that originate in bone marrow to "t-lympocytes")

Front 158

t-lymphocytes

Back 158

secrete cytokines, which promote phagocytes to engulf foreign substances or cells

Front 159

what hormones does the hypothalamus release?

Back 159

releasing and exhibiting hormones

Front 160

posterior pituitary gland

Back 160

an extension of the hypothalamus; composed of nervous tissue; stores and secretes oxytocin and ADH; both are made in the hypothalamus

Front 161

ADH

Back 161

promotes water retention by kidneys (and increased blood pressure)

Front 162

anterior pituitary gland

Back 162

synthesize and secrete hormones that control the activity of other glands; controlled by two types of hormones from the hypothalamus

Front 163

releasing hormones

Back 163

stimulate hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary

Front 164

inhibiting hormones

Back 164

inhibit hormone secretion by the anterior pituitary

Front 165

growth hormone (somatotropin)

Back 165

general anabolic effects; promotes bone and muscle growth especially during adolescence; greatest normal quantities are produced during childhood and adolescence (too little=dwarfism; too much=giantism); overproduction as an adult=acromegaly (mainly face, hands, and feet respond)

Front 166

thyroid releasing hormone

Back 166

secreted by the hypothalamus; causes anterior pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone

Front 167

thyroid stimulating hormone

Back 167

causes the thyroid gland to grow and to synthesize and secrete thyroxine and triiodothyronine

Front 168

what do thyroxine and triiodothyronine stimulate?

Back 168

metamorphosis of tadpoles into frogs; bone and nerve development; overall rates of basal metabolism (i.e. cellular respiration); hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism

Front 169

hyperthyroidism

Back 169

too much T3 and T4 which results in overheating, profuse sweating, irritability, hyperactivity, and hypertension

Front 170

hypothyroidism

Back 170

too little T3 and T4 which results in lethargy, cold intolerance, weight gain, and goiter

Front 171

gonads

Back 171

male testes and female ovaries; synthesis of sex hormones is regulated by the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland; steroid sex hormones affect growth and development, and regulate reproductive cycles and sexual behavior

Front 172

sex hormones

Back 172

androgens, estrogens, progestins

Front 173

androgens

Back 173

(testosterone) which stimulate

Front 174

estrogens

Front 175

progestins

Front 176

importance of glucose

Back 176

major energy transport form; catabolized by all cells via cellular repiration

Front 177

insulin

Back 177

signals cells to use and store glucose

Front 178

glucagon

Back 178

causes cells to release stored glucose into the blood and to convert fat and amino acids into glucose for use

Front 179

diabetes mellitus

Back 179

a hormonal disorder of humans in which cells of the body cannot absorb enough glucose from the blood and become energy starved as a result; body fats and proteins are then consumed for energy; blood glucose levels rise to dangerously high levels; digestive system still process carbohydrates and absorbs glucose

Front 180

symptoms of diabetes

Back 180

frequent urination, high urine glucose, persistent thirst; lack of energy, craving for sweets; ketoacidosis (fruity breath) from metabolism of fats and proteins to ketone bodies

Front 181

causes of diabetes

Back 181

lack of insulin production by pancreatic beta cells (type 1); failure of cells/receptors to respond to insulin (type 2)

Front 182

diabetes insipidus

Back 182

excessive "siphoning" of water from the body in the form of urine "without taste" (i.e. not sweet). It is caused by a defect in ADH production or a defect in the kidneys' response to ADH

Front 183

type 1 diabetes

Back 183

"insulin-dependent diabetes"; juvenile diabetes; autoimmune disease; caused by the destruction of insulin-producing beta cells

Front 184

type 2 diabetes

Back 184

"non-insulin dependent"; caused by a reduced response to insulin (aka "insulin resistance"); associated with being overweight and underactive; represents about 90% of diabetes

Front 185

gestational diabetes

Back 185

can affect any pregnant woman; hormones produced by the placenta and baby impair insulin action of the mother; mother's blood glucose rise (to insure sufficient supply of the baby); can lead to dangerously large babies

Front 186

human placental lactogen

Back 186

placenta produces insulin-blocking hormones (hpl) that cause mother's look glucose to rise

Front 187

adrenal gland location

Back 187

one on top of each kidney; each gland is technically made of two smaller glands (adrenal context and adrenal medulla); one controls response to short-term stress and the other controls response to long-term stress

Front 188

epinephrine

Back 188

adrenaline

Front 189

short-term stress response steps

Back 189

1. stress activates neurons in hypothalamus; neurons send impulses to adrenal medulla.

2. adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine

Front 190

long-term stress response steps

Back 190

1. hypothalamus secretes releasing hormone (rh).

2. rh stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (acth).

3. acth stimulates adrenal cortex to produce and secrete cortiscosteriods.

Front 191

metabolic short term stress response

Back 191

1. glycogen -> glucose; increased blood glucose.

2. increased blood pressure.

3. increased breathing rate.

4. increased metabolic rate.

5. change in blood flow pattern -> increased alertness, decreased digestive and kidney activity.

Front 192

metabolic long term stress response (mineralocorticoids)

Back 192

1. retention of Na+ and H2O by kidneys

2. increased blood volume and pressure

Front 193

metabolic long term stress response (glucocorticoids)

Back 193

1. proteins and fats broken down, converted to glucose, increased blood glucose levels

2. suppression of immune system

Front 194

hysterical strength

Back 194

"emergency superhuman strength" is somewhat overplayed, but partially true. Adrenalin promotes maximum strength, normal strength is only about 65-80% of maximum.

Front 195

prolactin (prl)

Back 195

a peptide hormone that is produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland, under the control of the hypothalamus

Front 196

prolactin in humans

Back 196

stimulates mammary glands to grow and produce milk; newborn suckling stimulates further release of prl; high prl during nursing inhibits ovulation

Front 197

prolactin in other animals

Back 197

(nonhuman mammals) stimulates nest building; (in birds) regulates fat metabolism and reproduction; (in amphibians) stimulates movement to water; (in fish that migrate between salt and fresh water) helps regulate salt and water balance

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leptin

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peptide hormone secreted by fat tissues; promotes a sense of satiation, thus suppressing appetite

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atrial natriuretic hormone

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peptide hormone secreted by the atria; inhibits the release of aldosterone; thus promotes the excretion of Na+ and water, leading to decreased blood volume and pressure

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erythropoietin

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peptide hormone produced by kidneys, released in response to low oxygen levels in kidneys; stimulate the production and acculturates maturation of red blood cells - thus enhancing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood

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prostaglandins

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locally produced and secreted lipid hormones derived from arachidonic (fatty) acid; have a variety of functions including: activation of the inflammatory response, production of pain and fever, induction of uterine contractions during labor, and inhibiting synthesis and secretion of digestive acids

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endorphins

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peptide hormones/neurotransmitters produced by the brain and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland; they bind the plate (e.g. morphine) receptors, thereby inhibiting the perception of pain; aka as natural pain killers often associated with "runner's high"

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types of reproduction

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asexual and sexual

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asexual reproduction

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via simple (mitotic) cell division or fragmentation; the creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent

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sexual reproduction

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via the production and fusion of meiotic gametes (sperm and eggs); the creation of genetically nice offspring by the fusion of two haploid gametes (fertilization) resulting in the formation of a diploid (2n) zygote

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parthenogenesis

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automixis, apomixis, thelytoky

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types of asexual reproduction

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fission, cell division, budding, fragmentation and regeneration

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fission

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as in prokaryotes and anemones

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cell division

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as in unicellular protists

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budding

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as in yeasts and hydras

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fragmentation and regeneration

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as in starfish and sponges

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binary fission

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the separation of a parents organism/cell into two or more individuals of about equal size

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advantages of asexual reproduction

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normally faster than sexual reproduction (allows rapid population growth new or vacated habitats), beneficial in stable, unchanging habitats (no new selective pressures, new adaptations are not beneficial), beneficial for sparse populations or where individuals do not move (allows reproduction where mates are not available)

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sexual reproduction in animals

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male gametes (i.e. sperm) are relatively small and move by means of flagellum; female gametes (i.e. eggs) are much larger cells and are not self-propelled

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hermaphrodite

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an organism that has both male and female reproductive organs; occurs in mainly in the invertebrates (and plants); only one sex: twice as likely to find a mate; normally exchange gametes with other individuals, but may fertilize their own eggs

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reproduction in fish and amphibians

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external fertilization and reproduction; dependent on water

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reproduction in reptiles and birds

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internal (cloacal) fertilization; amniotic egg; not dependent on water; oviparous change -> viviparous development

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reproduction in mammals

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internal fertilization; not dependent on water; develops completely within the female body; development linked to placenta; live birth

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cloaca

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the posterior opening that servesas the only such opening for the combined intestinal, reproductive, and urinarytracts. All amphibians, birds, reptiles, and monotremespossess a cloaca, from which they excrete both urine and feces; placentalmammals possesstwo or three separate orifices for evacuation

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oviparous

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producing eggs that hatch outsidethe body. Amphibians, birds, and most insects, fish, and some reptiles areoviparous. However,lizards & some snakes are viviparous

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oviviviparious

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animals develop within eggs thatremain within the mother's body up until they hatch or are about to hatch

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viviparous

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givingbirth to living young that develop within the mother's body rather thanhatching from eggs. Some reptiles, and all mammals except the monotremesare viviparous

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gonads

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reproductive organs specialized for the production of gametes (ovaries and testes)

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germ cells

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specialized diploid somatic stencils that divide by mitosis and then by meiosis to produce gametes (oogonia and spermatogonia)

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gametogenesis

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the process of gamete formation (oogenesis and spermatogenesis)

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what does meiosis start in a female?

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around 3 months after conception and stops at birth

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ovaries

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female gonads, produce and mature oocytes, with cyclical release during ovulation. Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone

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infundibula and oviducts

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funnel-shaped opening and channels (fallopian tubes) the capture and conduct or direct the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus. Fertilization of the egg normally occurs in the oviduct

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uterus

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chamber where the embryo fully develops into a new individual. Integral parts of the uterus include the endometrium, myometrium and cervix

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endometrium

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inner lining of the uterus where the blastocyte

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spermatic cord

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tissue that encloses vas deferens and vascular tissue, and attaches them to the body

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how long does spermatogenesis take?

Back 232

2.5-3 months

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protesteglandans

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act as a camouflage so that sperms cells can survive longer in the female body without being destroyed by her immune system

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what does the hypothalamus secrete

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gonadotropin releasing hormone

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gonadotropin releasing hormone

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anterior pituitary gland releases FSH and LH

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FSH

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stimulates sperm production by testes; follicle stimulation hormone

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LH

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promotes release of androgens (testosterone); luteinizing hormone

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androgens

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also stimulate sperm production; feedback to hypothalamus to inhibit secretion of releasing hormone and LH

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meiosis

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the production of haploid gametes from diploid cells in sexually reproducing organisms; spermatogenesis in the testes and oogenesis in the ovaries

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spermatogenesis

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occurs in the seminiferous tubules of the testes; diploid spermatogonial stem cell occur near the walls of tubules

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how long does meiosis II in males take?

Back 241

2.5-3 months

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how long does meiosis I in males take?

Back 242

3 days

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when do primary oocytes form?

Back 243

during fetal development where the fetus is only about 2-3 inches long; formation of the primary follicle occurs during the adult ovarian cycle

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how many original primary oocytes are produced?

Back 244

around 7 million

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how many primary oocytes are there at birth?

Back 245

around 1 or 2 million

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how many primary oocytes are there when a female reaches puberty?

Back 246

about 300,000

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how many primary oocytes reach maturity?

Back 247

only 300-400

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when is meiosis II in a woman completed?

Back 248

only when fertilization occurs

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polar bodies

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"aborted" or "discarded" at the side of the egg

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ovarian cycle

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the development of an oocyte into a matured ovulated egg

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uterine cycle

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aka the menstrual cycle; the preparation of the uterine lining to receive a developing zygote

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releasing hormone

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secreted by: the hypothalamus; regulates secretion of LH and FSH by pituitary

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follicle-stimulation hormone (FSH)

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secreted by: the pituitary gland; stimulates growth of ovarian follicle

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leuteinizing hormone (LH)

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secreted by: the pituitary gland; stimulates growth of ovarian follicle and production of secondary oocyte; promotes ovulation; promotes development of corpus luteum and secretion of other hormones

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estrogen

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secreted by" the ovarian follicle; low levels inhibit pituitary; high levels stimulate hypothalamus; promotes growth of endometrium

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estrogen and progesterone

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secreted by: the corpus luteum; maintain endometrium; high levels inhibit hypothalamus and pituitary; sharp drops promote menstruation

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human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

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maintains the corpus luteum, which continues to secrete progesterone and estrogen

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fertilization

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the union of sperm and egg to form a diploid zygote

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attributes of a sperm

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flagellated tail, streamlined shape; many mitochondria for ATP production; a "head" containing the haploid nucleus; an acrosome containing enzymes that help it penetrate the egg

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cleavage

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the first major phases of embryo development characterized as a series of rapid synchronous cell divisions without cell growth that transforms the zygote into a hollow ball of cells called a blastula

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blastocoel

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inside the blastula

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gastrulation

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differential cell division and growth; infolding and specialization of cells initially into two layers; formation of the blastopore; migration of some cells to form the third layer; results in the formation of the gastrula; varies from one species to another

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animal pole

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region of small rapidly dividing cells; through to become the three germ layers

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vegetal pole

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region of large slowly dividing cells thought to become the yolk and placenta

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blastopore

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becomes the embryonic anus

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ectoderm

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epidermis of skin; epithelial lining of mouth and rectum; sense receptors in epidermis; cornea and leans of eye; nervous system

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endoderm

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epithelial lining of digestive tract (except mouth and rectum); epithelial lining of respiratory system; liver; pancreas; thyroid; parathyroids; thymus; lining of urethra; urinary bladder; and reproductive system

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mesoderm

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skeletal system; muscular system; circulatory system; excretory system; reproductive system (except gamete forming cells)' dermis of skin; lining of body cavity

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pattern formation

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the emergence of a body form with specialized tissues, organs, and limbs forming at the correct time and in the correct locations

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homeotic gene

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(aka HOX gene) determine how, when, and where different body parts (or segments) develop during embryo development

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pregnancy

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(aka gestation) the state of condition of carrying the developing young of a species within the female reproductive tract; begins at fertilization (or conception) and ends at birth (or delivery)

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gestation period of an elephant

Back 272

20 months

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gestation period of a human

Back 273

38 weeks after fertilization or 40 weeks from the start of the last menstrual cycle

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gestation period of a mouse

Back 274

3 weeks

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how does a blastocyst form?

Back 275

cleavage

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blastocyst

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inner cell mass, trophoblast, and cavity; attaches to the uterine wall

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trophoblast

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secretes enzymes that degrade endometrium, facilitate implantation, and help form the placenta; cells multiply and spread into the endometrium; becomes the chorion; forms the embryo's contribution to the placenta

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what does the inner cell mass form?

Back 278

embryonic disk (epiblast) and hypoblast (future yolk sac)

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what are the characteristics of early gastrulation

Back 279

migration of the embryonic cells and formation of the three distinct embryonic cell layers (ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm); initial formation of extra-embryonic membranes - the outermost membrane (the chorion); amnion and yolk sac membranes also become evident

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what are the characteristics of late gastrulation

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adjacent layers of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm have distinctly formed into the embryonic disc; chorion; amnion, yolk sac;allantois

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chorion

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produces human chorionic gonadotropin (pregnancy hormone); forms outgrowths (villi) with strands of mesoderm within that penetrate into endometrium

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amnion

Back 282

eventually grows to surround the embryo and becomes filled with fluid to protect the embryo

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yolk sac

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forms the first blood cells and germ cells (primordial gonads) of the embryo

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allantois

Back 284

eventually becomes the umbilical cord

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placenta

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a composite organ comprised of fetal chorionic villi and maternal blood vessels of the endometrium; some undesirable substances can still cross; e.g. Rh antibodies, viruses, drugs

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what is the function of the placenta

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exchange of nutrients, gases, and elimination of fetal water; does not allow mixing of maternal and fetal blood supplies

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first trimester

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the period of greatest change; the embryo forms, but looks like other vertebrate embryos; extra-embryonic membranes form; all major organ systems (except circulatory and respiratory systems) are established; called a fetus after 9 weeks - starts to look distinctly human; can move its arms and legs

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second trimester

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fetus greatly increases in size and weight and assumes the "fetal position"; human features become well-defined, including facial, hand, and feet features; are are open at the end of the second trimester

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third trimester

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time of rapid growth where the circulatory and respiratory systems mature, the muscle thick and skeleton hardens; first (but low) change of premature survival possible after week 23 (90% by week 28)

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how is child birth induced?

Back 290

hormones and other chemical signals

Front 291

what stimulates contractions in the uterus?

Back 291

prostaglandins

Front 292

what does oxytocin stimulate?

Back 292

uterine contractions, placental synthesis, and release of prostaglandins

Front 293

what happens when the amnion ruptures?

Back 293

labor proceeds

Front 294

what does estrogen stimulate?

Back 294

the formation of oxytocin receptors in uterus

Front 295

what are the three stages of labor?

Back 295

dilation of the cervix, expulsion (delivery), and delivery of the placenta

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dilation of the cervix

Back 296

longest stage of labor (6-12+ hours), cervix dilates to 10cm, and the amnion ruptures

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expulsion (delivery)

Back 297

lasts 20-60 minutes, strong rhythmic uterine contractions (1 min, every 2-3 minutes), and the infant is forced down and out uterus and vagina

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delivery of the placenta

Back 298

expulsion of the "afterbirth", normally within 15 minutes of delivery

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what percentage of couples struggle with infertility?

Back 299

about 15%

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male infertility

Back 300

low sperm count, low sperm motility, and erectile dysfunction

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female infertility

Back 301

no oocytes, inability to ovulate, blocked oviducts, inability to maintain endometrium

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in vitro fertilization

Back 302

the most common assisted reproduction technology; fertilization outside the body; can include IntraCytoplasmic Sperm Injection; eight-celled embryo is implanted or stored

Front 303

how many different STDs are there?

Back 303

around 15

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what causes STDs?

Back 304

viruses, bacteria, and arthropods

Front 305

whats the best protection against STDs?

Back 305

a condom

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IUD

Back 306

minor irritation of uterine lining prevents implantation

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what do injectables, pills, patch, ring all release estrogen and/or progesterone have in common

Back 307

the prevent ovulation, thin out uterine lining, thicken cervical mucus barrier

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main indicators of fertility (ovulation)

Back 308

basal body temperature, cervical mucous

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when is maximum fertility period?

Back 309

8-9 days before and 3-4 days after ovulation