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113 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

3 things microscope allows you to do?

1. Magnify




2. Resolve what you see, Clarity




3. Contrast - What you can define in the background

Sets of lenses?

Deula bi ocular lenses -




Objective Lenses ( Around the nosepiece)

What is Field of View?

The specimen and it's background

How many objective lenses are there? What are there names and magnifications and color of there bands?

There are 4.




Red band, Scanning lens - x4; total mag: x40


Yellow Band, Low power - X10; total mag: x100


Blue Band, High Power - x40; total mag: x400


White band, Oil Immersion - x100;


total mag x1000

How do you calculate total magnification?

Ocular lens (X10) times whichever objective lens is being used



Name the knobs used for adjusting and describe their function.

Coarse adjusting knob - Allows stage to be shifted lower or higher (superior and inferior) plane of space; used first to focus.




Fine Adjustment knob - Permits exact focusing




Directional knobs(stage adjustment knobs) - Anterior/Posterior (up & down) plane of space, and medial/lateral (left and right)


What is the type of relationship between working distance and magnification and why?

Inverse, because something is going up while something goes down.

3 things that will allow you to see the specimen.

1. stain or color dye


2. Condensor - Condenses beam of light on to specimen


3. Iris Diaphragm lever - Shifts from left to right, Controls the light for contrast

Who came up with the first kingdoms of life, when did he, and how many did he come up with, and what were there names?

In 1972 Robert Whitaker came up with the five kingdoms of life, Kingdom Monera, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Protist, Kingdom Animalia, & Kingdom Plantae.

How many types of shape are there for bacteria and what are they?

3, They are




1. Coeci, looks like dots


2. Bacilli, looks like lines


3. Spirilla - looks like spirals

What is a binomial name? Give an example of one.

Genus + Species,


Rhizopus nigros

What determines whether an element is reactive or not?

It's number of electrons

In what form is the loss of energy for all chemical processes?

Heat

When electrons come together to make a chemical bond what does it raise?

Potential energy

How do you change potential energy into kinetic energy thus utilizing it?

Gotta break the bonds.

How does fungi perform asexual reproduction?

Thru its spores

What does fungi need to grow?

Water

What are the roles rotating nose piece and Mechanical stage on the Microscope?

Rotating nose piece, allows the 4 objective lens to rotated in and out.



Mechanical stage - Supports the slide; Slide is placed here and fitted for viewing


What was the orientation of the letter e in the first slide examined in the lab?

Upside down and reversed

In the second slide, labeled "three cross fibers," what color thread was on the bottom? Middle? Top? Explain why.

Usually yellow on bottom, blue in the middle, and red on top. But if that is not the case then you will know by which using the fine focus knob. First to come into focus is the bottom, second to come into focus is the middle, and the last one to come into focus is on top.

If you move the slide to the right on the stage, in what direction does it appear to move when viewed through the microscope?

To the left

If you the slide towards you, in what direction does it appear to move when viewed through the microscope?

Away from me

What is the total magnification of the specimen seen as through the scanning objective lens? Low power? High power?

Scanning 40x


Low power 100x


High power 400X

What microscope part regulates the amount of light reaching the specimen?

Iris Diaphragm

What objective lens is always used first when focusing on a specimen in the slide? Why?




Is it permissible to adjust the stage up or down while looking through the microscope? When?

The scanning lens, because it used to focus. Only when using the scanning lens, the other lenses too short to hit and possibly crack the slide.




Yes, but only with the scanning lens. The other two lens are long enough to touch the slide and could break the specimen slide, thus why the concept of working distance needs to be understood.

How would you recognize a bacteria cell?


Fungi?


Protistan cell?


Plantae cell?


Animalia cell?


Give examples of each one.

Bacteria, very small, and does not have a nucleus,




Fungi - Has a nucleus, is multicellular and has spores Ex: Mushrooms, mold, Rhizopus Nigros




Protista - Has a nucleus, and is unicellular,


EX: mixed protozoa




Plantae - They have cell walls, and nucleus,


Ex: Elodea




Animalia - Overall flat shape and nucleus


EX: Cheek cells

Where is the atomic number found and what is it?

The atomic number is found above the chemical symbol and it represent the number of protons which in turn tells you the number of electrons.


What is the symbol on the periodic table?

A large letter or two letters written in boldface.

What elements make up 96% of living things by weight?

Hydrogen, Carbon, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.

What is matter?

Anything that takes up space.



Where is the atomic weight located and what is it? How do you get the number of neutrons?

The atomic weight is found under the symbol and is the combination of protons and neutrons in the element's nucleus.




You get the amount of neutrons by subtracting the Atomic number (protons) minus the Atomic Weight.

What are the charges of the 3 subatomic particles?

Protons +


Neutrons Neutral


Electrons -



Why does an atom itself not display a charge?

Because the number of protons is the same as the number of electrons thus there charges cancel each other.

Where are electrons found? What is the valence shell? How many in each shell?

They are found in the electron shells/Orbitals/Levels. First shell holds up to 2 electrons, 2nd shell holds up to 8, & 3rd shell holds up to 18, but electrons traveling in this level obey the rule of octet.



What is the rule of octet?

Applies to Electrons in the 3rd shell, and it means if the third energy level has eight electrons, the atom is unreactive and will not form chemical bonds.

What does the term valence mean?




What is the valence number equal to?

The term valence is the bonding ability of an atom


Valence number equals the number of unpaired electrons required to complete the atom's valence shell.

How does an atom become an ion?


What is a cation?


Anion?

When it loses or gains an electron.




Cation - positive charged ion, the atom lost an electron.




Anion - Negative charged ion, the atom gained an electron.

Difference between Ionic and covalent bonds?

Ionic bonds are made by an atom completely losing or gaining an electron, no sharing.




Covalent bonds are when electrons are shared. Polar covalenet - not shared equally (Compound)


Non polar covalent - shared equally (Molecule)

Hydrogen bond?

Usually found in between water and ammonia. A bridge to electronegative atoms. When oxygen covalently bonds to hydrogen, O gains a slightly negative charge, and H gains a slighty + charge, thus it attracts the next partially - charged electronegative atom. Opposites attract.

What will molecular formula illustrate?




Structural formula?

Molecular formula shows which and the number of atoms in a substance but not what it looks like and what type of bonds exist.




Structural formula - Illustrates the type of bonds and what it looks like.

What is an acid?




What is a buffer?

Something that dissociates in water to form hydrogen ions H+ and an anion, thus increases the acidity of a solution.




Something that dissociates in water to form hydroxide ions (OH-) and cations. Decreases the acidity of a solution.









Difference between unicellular and multicellular?

Unicellular - Body of organism is composed of a single cell and all life activites are carried out within itself with its internal structure. These intracellular structures are called the organelles.



Multicellular - Body of organism is composed of numerous cells. Different cells are specialized to perform different functions. These organisms have a better chance to survive longer, since work load is limited on cells.



A. How much more acidic is pH 3 than pH 7?



B. How much more basic is pH 7 than pH 3?




C. How much more basic is pH 11 than pH 4?




D. How much more acidic is pH 1 than pH 2?




E. How much more basic is pH 10 than pH 8?

a. 10,000 times more acidic




b. 10,000 times more basic




c. 10,000,000 times more basic




d. 10 times more acidic




E. 100 times more basic

What is the activation energy?




What are enzymes and how do they affect this?

The activation energy is the lowest amount of energy needed to start a chemical reaction.




Enzyme is a protein that functions as a biological catalyst, which means it allows a chemical process to occur without increasing body temperature. This happens because enzymes lower the "activation energy" of a chemical reaction.

If a word ends in ase, what does it mean 90% of the time?

It is an enzyme

Talk about the Enzyme specifity.

It's the thing it bonds too, and only to certain things that is, things as in subtrate to be exact.




The substrate is the substance that binds to the enzyme's activity site, thus triggering the reaction.




Example: Digestive Enzymes in the stomach bind to food.(substrate)

How do enzymes speed up the rate of chemical reactions?

By lowering the activation energy of chemical reaction.


What three enzymes did the lab solution pancreatin contain?




What was the pancreatin solution in lab?

Trypsin




Amylase




Lipases




Powdered cow pancreas

What is the name of the protein found in egg white?

Albumin

What are the building blocks of proteins?

Amino Acids

What were the differences between the eggs in distilled water and in the pancreatin solution?

Egg in water showed no change in outer appearance. Egg in pancreatin showed extreme digestion, with murky fluid surronding it.

Name the enzyme responsible for protein digestion. What type of bonds does it break? What category of enzymes does it fall under?

Trypsin, it breaks peptide bonds and breaks peptide fragments down into amino acids. It falls under the Proteases classifcation along with chymotrypsin and pepsin.

What is Benedict's reagent used for?

It is a test for the presence of sugar, always used in boiling water baths.

What enzyme in the pancreatin solution digested starch? What is it classified as?

It's classified as a Carbohydrases, which break down carbohydrates to their building blocks, which are simple sugars (monosaccharides). Amylase was the name of the enzyme that specifically broke down starch(Sugar Polymer)

What is a positive test for the presence of sugar? What did you use to test it?

Benedict's reagent, and will turn green/orange if it test's positive.

Name the enzyme that digested popcorn in the mouth.

Salivary Amylase

Name the reagent used to identify fatty acids.

Blue Litmus



Name the enzyme in the pancreatin solution that digested fat and what it's classified as.

It's classified as a lipase and the enzyme name was trypsin. Was used to break the fats into their building blocks, which are fatty acids and glycerol.



What are the building blocks of fats?

Fatty acids and glycerol

What is a positive test (color change) for the end product of fat?

Blue litmus turns Pink in the presence of fatty acids.



What is the activation energy for a chemical reaction?

The lowest amount of energy needed for the chemical reaction to start.

What are the characteristics of prokaryotic cells?

They are tiny and don't have a nucleus, have a nucleoid instead, but because it doesn't have any membrane-organelles which is why you can't see the nucleoid.

What are the two major groups or divisions of bacteria cells?

Arcahebacteria and Eubacteria

Name and describe the three different shapes of bacteria.

Coecci - Dots or spheres




Spirilla - Wavy or Spiral shaped




Bacilli - rod shaped

How do cyanobacteria obtain nutrients. Name all three that were seen in the lab. And what are they also called?

By photosynthesis thanks to the fact that they have chlorophyll. They are in the ocean, and they are Nostoc, Oscillatoria, and Anabena.

What is the value of the gram staining technique?

It allows you to differentiate between gram positive and gram negative bacteria.

What is crystal violet used for?

To stain gram positives thicker peptidoglycon cell wall.

What is safranin used for?

It is a counterstain- will display gram-negative bacteria.



What is the cell wall of bacteria made of?

Peptidoglycans, a sugar protein, in which the sugar contains nitrogen.

What do bacteria cells lack?


What do they have?

They lack membrane-bound organelles.




They have a capsule, cell wall, plasma membrane, free ribosomes, a nucleoid where is usually the genome, in the form of DNA.



What 2 more things does a photosynthetic bacterium (blue-green algae) have than a Nonphotosynthetic bacterium? What does it lack?

A slime layer around the capsule, and thylakoids.




A flagellum.

The process in what bacteria reproduce asexually is called?

Binary Fission

What is the pili and their function? Are they found on gram-negative or gram positive?

Tiny tube structures found on the outside of the cell, their function is to allow the bacterial cells to colonize.




Both, but mostly on Gram Negative

How does heterotrophic obtain nutrients?




Autotrophic?

Heterotrophic obtains nutrients from other living organisms




Autotrophic they actually conduct photosynthesis or they can oxidize inorganic molecules.

Define Diffusion and Osmosis.




Do they happen one at a time?

Diffusion - The transport(movement) of a solute (solid) down a concentration gradient, moving from high to low.




Osmosis - The movement of a solvent(water) from a high volume of water to a low volume.




No they happen independently and simultaneously.

Define a substance that is Selectively/Semi Permeable.

It means it allows certain substances to cross it but not others, more specifically it chooses small and nonpolar substances. Small polar subtances can cross but it takes way longer.

What was the name of the fake membrane used in the lab, and what was the specific feature that made it selectively permeable?

Dialysis Membrane, and it had tiny microscopic holes which made it selectively permeable.

Which two substances did NOT diffuse through the membrane in the lab and why?

Starch and Protein because their molecular weights were too high.

Which two substances did diffuse through the membrane?

Sodium sulfate and sodium chloride, because the anions could be seen by positive reagent tests.

How do you check for the presence or absence of the diffusing substances? What do you use for sulfate ions? Chloride ions?

By using reagents. For sulfate ions the reagent used is Barium Chloride. For Chloride ions the reagent used is Silver Nitrate.

How did the student check for the process of osmosis?

Checked for osmosis by weighing the sac before and after the 90 minute period. If the sac weight changed, osmosis occured. If the sac weighed more, water moved from the beaker into the sac. If the sac weighed less, water moved from the sac into the beaker.

What happened to the shape of the plant cell when mixed with distilled water?

Plant cell would swell and become turgid.

What happened to the shape of the animal cell when mixed with the hypertonic solution?

Animal cell would crenate(Shrink)

What happened to the shape of the animal cell when mixed with the hypotonic solution?



Isotonic?

Animal cell would swell and eventually burst, because they don't have a cell wall.




Nothing will happen to it's shape, as the isotonic solution makes turns the net movement of water into an equilibrium.

What is the reagent for Starch? What is positive test for starch?

Iodine, IKI. A positive test is a black inky color. A couple of drops are needed and reaction is instant.

What is the Reagent for Sulfate Ions? What is positive test for Sulfate Ions?

Reagent for Sulfate Ions is Barium Chloride BaCI2. A positive test for the presence of sulfate ions is a white precipitate, turning the solution a cloudy color.

What is the Reagent for Chloride Ions? What is positive test for Chloride Ions?

Reagent for Chloride Ions is Silver nitrate AgNO3. A positive test for the presence of Chloride Ions is a white precipitate, and the solution in the test tube will turn cloudy.

What is the reagent for Albumin? What is the positive test for Albumin?

The reagent to test for albumin is a strip of Albustix. The presence of protein(albumin) is seen by a color change on one of the squares on top of the strips from a pale yellow color to green.

What is tonicity?




What does it always accompany?

The ability to change the shape of a living cell.




Osmosis; Osmosis and Tonicity go hand in hand.

What does it mean for something to be amphipathic?

Meaning it has portions both polar and non polar.

A typical eukaryotic cell has a membrane composed of what?




Explain it's chemical structure.



Two phospholipid layers that are amphipathic,.




The chemical strucutre of a phospholipid is that of a phospherous head(Polar because it has a negative charge), attached to two fatty acid tails(NonPolar). The fatty acid's are hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group at the end of them.

What is a passive transport?

Does not require any energy, happens on their own.

Define Transport

Substances that can cross cell membranes.

Which parts of the plasma membrane is hydrophobic and hydrophilic?

The interior parts of the plasma membrane are hydrophobic (Water fearing) And the exterior parts are hydrophilic (Water-loving).

What is the molecular weight(MW) for a water molecule?

The molecular weight for a water molecule is 18.

If a plant cell becomes mixed with an isotonic soltuion what happens?




Hypertonic?




Hypotonic?

It causes the plant to become flaccid or limp.




Water moves out of the plant cell, thus the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall, this is called plasmolysis.




The cell wall prevents lysis, and thus the stem becomes turgid, the plant stands upright.

What is a hypertonic solution?




Hypotonic?




Isotonic?

Hypertonic is NaCl >0.9%-30%


ex: NaCl 10%/H2O 90%




Hypotonic is NaCl < 0.9%


Ex: Distilled water, 100% H2O




Isotonic is NaCl 0.9%/99.1 H2O


Those concentrations must be exactly that in the water.

What is mitosis?

Division of the nucleus of a somatic cell

What is cytokinesis?

Division of cytoplasm

What is the cell cycle for a eukaryotic cell?

An ordered sequence of events in the life of a cell. Interphase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and telophase with cytokinesis following closely to telophase.



What are the 3 subphases of Interphase?

G(Growth)1 Growing in preparation to divide


Synthesis - Dna has to copied, Is in chromatin form thus Dna Polymerase are active in this phase.


G(Growth)2 - Growing in preparation to divide

What is the condition of the genome when it is in chromatin form?




What is a Dna Polymearse?

Dna is long, stretched out. does not stain well, and is described as being in a uncoiled form, it is in this form it can be replicated.




DNA Polymearse an enzyme whose jobs is to duplicate DNA while it is in chromatin form.

Why would a cell do mitosis?

To repair, they got infected or a tissue got infected




Replace, an entire group got infected




Growth, in order for the body to grow




Development, this is the concept on how a baby goes from cell to baby

Why does DNA copy or replicate itself during interphase of the cell cycle?

DNA has to double up so that when mitosis has finished, there are two exact clones or copies of the parent cell- the same exact number and kind of chromosomes.

What are the differences between animal and plant mitosis?

Animal - Cytokineses is by cleavage furrow;


Plant - cytokineses is by formation of cell plate between cells.

What are the phases of mitosis in the correct sequence?

Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase & Cytokensis

What did the isolated DNA look like in the DNA Report Card lab?

Snot

How many chromosomes does the human cell have? Bacteria?

Human cells have 23 pairs of chromosomes, which equal 46. Bacteria has 1.

Where in the cell, is the DNA located?

In the nucleus.

What was the purpose of the lysis buffer?

To destroy cell membranes.

What was the purpose of the pro tease solution?




What does salt NaCl do?

To break the peptide bonds of the histones in the chromosome. The protease also had to be put in a boiling water bath of 56 C degrees for 20 minutes to do so.




Salt brought DNA almost out of solution.

Is alcohol more or less dense than an aqueous solution? Why is it important to know?

It is less dense, so it floats on top of water, thus forming a liquid interphase so that the DNA can be spooled there.

Isolation, extraction of DNA is called

A spooling lab