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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Citric acid cycle
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A series of enzyme-catalysed chemical reactions, which is of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part of cellular respiration
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Glycolysis
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the catabolism of carbohydrates, as glucose and glycogen, by enzymes, with the release of energy and the production of lactic or pyruvic acid.
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Electron transport chain
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couples a reaction between an electron donor (such as NADH) and an electron acceptor (such as O2) to the transfer of H+ ions across a membrane, through a set of mediating biochemical reactions
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NAD+
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nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide: a coenzyme, C 2 1 H 2 7 N 7 O 1 4 P 2 , involved in many cellular oxidation-reduction reactions.
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Oxidizing agent
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a substance that gains electrons in a redox chemical reaction
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Reducing agent
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a substance that causes another substance to undergo reduction and that is oxidized in the process.
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Reduction
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the first meiotic cell division in which the chromosome number is reduced by half.
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Oxidation
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is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation state by a molecule, atom, or ion.
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Redox reaction
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Redox reaction
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Cellular respiration
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the oxidation of organic compounds that occurs within cells, producing energy for cellular processes
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Fermentation
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an enzymatically controlled anaerobic breakdown of an energy-rich compound
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Feedback inhibition
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inhibition of an enzyme controlling an early stage of a series of biochemical reactions by the end product when it reaches a critical concentration
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Allosteric regulation
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the regulation of an enzyme or other protein by binding an effector molecule at the protein's allosteric site.
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Non-competitive inhibitors
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type of enzyme inhibition where the inhibitor reduces the activity of the enzyme.[
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Competitive inhibitors
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a form of enzyme inhibition where binding of the inhibitor to the active site on the enzyme prevents binding of the substrate and vice versa.
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Coenzyme
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a molecule that provides the transfer site for biochemical reactions catalyzed by an enzyme.
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Cofactors
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a non-protein chemical compound that is bound to a protein and is required for the protein's biological activity.
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Activation energy
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the minimum amount of energy required to convert a normal stable molecule into a reactive molecule called also energy of activation
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ATP
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aerobically by the reaction of ADP and an orthophosphate during oxidation, or by the interaction of ADP and phosphocreatine or certain other substrates
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Endergonic reaction
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a chemical reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed.
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Exergonic reaction
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a chemical reaction indicating a spontaneous reaction.
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Entropy
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a function of thermodynamic variables, as temperature, pressure, or composition, that is a measure of the energy that is not available for work during a thermodynamic process.
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Second law of thermodynamics
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an expression of the tendency that over time, differences in temperature, pressure, and chemical potential equilibrate in an isolated physical system.
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First law of thermodynamics
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The law expresses that energy can be transformed, i.e. changed from one form to another, but cannot be created nor destroyed.
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Thermodynamics
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the science concerned with the relations between heat and mechanical energy or work, and the conversion of one into the other.
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Chemical energy
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that part of the energy in a substance that can be released by a chemical reaction
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Potential energy
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the energy of a body or a system with respect to the position of the body or the arrangement of the particles of the system.
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Thermal energy
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the part of the total, internal energy of a thermodynamic system or sample of matter that results in the system's temperature.
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Anabolic pathways
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The series of chemical reactions that constructs or synthesizes molecules from smaller units, usually requiring input of energy (ATP) in the process.
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Catabolic pathways
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A sequence of degradative chemical reactions that break down complex molecules into smaller units, usually releasing energy in the process.
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Ligands
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a molecule, as an antibody, hormone, or drug, that binds to a receptor.
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Endocytosis
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the transport of solid matter or liquid into a cell by means of a coated vacuole or vesicle
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Exocytosis
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the transport of material out of a cell by means of a sac or vesicle that first engulfs the material and then is extruded through an opening in the cell membrane
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Electrochemical gradient
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a spatial variation of both electrical potential and chemical concentration across a membrane.
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Membrane potential
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the potential difference between the interior of a cell and the interstitial fluid beyond the membrane
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Sodium potassium pumps
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an enzyme located in the plasma membrane (to be specific, an electrogenic transmembrane ATP in all animals.
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Gated channels
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re one type of ionotropic receptor or channel-linked receptor.
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Ion channels
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pore-forming proteins that help establish and control the small voltage gradient across the plasma membrane of cells by allowing the flow of ions down their electrochemical gradient.
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Facilitated diffusion
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a process by which substances are transported across cell membranes by means of protein carrier molecules
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Osmoregulation
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the process by which cells and simple organisms maintain fluid and electrolyte balance with their surroundings.
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Hypotonic
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having a lesser osmotic pressure in a fluid compared to another fluid, as in a ‘hypotonic solution’ – compare hypertonic, isotonic
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Hypertonic
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Having a higher osmotic pressure in a fluid relative to another fluid
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Isotonic
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noting or pertaining to solutions characterized by equal osmotic pressure.
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Osmosis
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the tendency of a fluid, usually water, to pass through a semipermeable membrane into a solution where the solvent concentration is higher
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Passive transport
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moving biochemicals and other atomic or molecular substances across membranes.
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Concentration gradient
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the gradual difference in concentration of a dissolved substance in a solution between a region of high density and one of lower density.
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Diffusion
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the spread of particles through random motion from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration.
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Transport proteins
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transport proteins in the cell membrane pick up molecules outside the cell and carry them in, using energy.Transport proteins also carry molecules out of cells in a similar way.
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Glycoprotein
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any of a group of complex proteins containing a carbohydrate combined with a simple protein.
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Glycolipid
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any of a class of lipids, comprising the cerebrosides and gangliosides, that upon hydrolysis yield galactose or a similar sugar, a fatty acid, and sphingosine or dihydrosphingosine.
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Peripheral protein
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proteins that adhere only temporarily to the biological membrane with which they are associated.
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Integral protein
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a protein molecule that is permanently attached to the biological membrane.
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Fluid mosaic model
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a conceptual model of cell membrane and its boundary as a tightly packed double layer of phospholipid molecules interspersed with protein molecules which aid cross-membrane transport
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Amphipathic molecule
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Hydrophilic end or a polar end, and a hydrophobic end or a non-polar end.
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Selective permeability
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The property of a membrane or other material that allows some substances to pass through it more easily than others.
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Plasma membrane
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The plasma membrane regulates what enters and leaves the cell. Many molecules cross the cell membrane by diffusion and osmosis.
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Cytoplasm
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the cell substance between the cell membrane and the nucleus, containing the cytosol, organelles, cytoskeleton, and various particles.
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Eukaryotic cell
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a cell with a true nucleus; a cell with a nuclear membrane and organelles
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Prokaryotic cell
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a cell lacking a true membrane-bound nucleus
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Cytosol
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the water-soluble components of cell cytoplasm, constituting the fluid portion that remains after removal of the organelles and other intracellular structures.
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Organelles
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a specialized part of a cell having some specific function; a cell organ.
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Antiparrallel
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they run side-by-side in opposite directions.
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Double helix
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the spiral arrangement of the two complementary strands of DNA.
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Purine
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one of several purine derivatives, esp. the bases adenine and guanine, which are fundamental constituents of nucleic acids.
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Pyrimidine
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one of several pyrimidine derivatives, esp. the bases cytosine, thymine, and uracil, which are fundamental constituents of nucleic acids.
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Nucleotide
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any of a group of molecules that, when linked together, form the building blocks of DNA or RNA: composed of a phosphate group, the bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine, and a pentose sugar, in RNA the thymine base being replaced by uracil.
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Polynucleotide
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a sequence of nucleotides, as in DNA or RNA, bound into a chain.
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RNA
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one of the three major macromolecules (along with DNA and proteins) that are essential for all known forms of life.
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DNA
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a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms
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Nucleic acid
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any of a group of long, linear macromolecules, either DNA or various types of RNA, that carry genetic information directing all cellular functions
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Gene
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the basic physical unit of heredity; a linear sequence of nucleotides along a segment of DNA that provides the coded instructions for synthesis of RNA, which, when translated into protein, leads to the expression of hereditary character.
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Chaperonins
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protein complexes that assist the folding of these nascent, non-native polypeptides into their native, functional state.
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Denaturation
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process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose their tertiary structure and secondary structure by application of some external stress or compound, such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent or heat.
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Peptide bond
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a covalent bond formed by joining the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another, with the removal of a molecule of water.
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Amino acid
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any of a class of organic compounds that contains at least one amino group
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Protein
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any of numerous, highly varied organic molecules constituting a large portion of the mass of every life form and necessary in the diet of all animals and other nonphotosynthesizing organisms, composed of 20 or more amino acids linked in a genetically controlled linear sequence into one or more long polypeptide chains
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Polypeptide
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a chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds and having a molecular weight of up to about 10,000.
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Catalysts
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a substance which alters the rate of a chemical reaction but is chemically unchanged at the end of the reaction.
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Enzyme
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any of various proteins, as pepsin, originating from living cells and capable of producing certain chemical changes in organic substances by catalytic action
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Cholesterol
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a sterol that occurs in all animal tissues
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Steroid
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any of a large group of fat-soluble organic compounds, as the sterols, bile acids, and sex hormones, most of which have specific physiological action.
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Phospholipids
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any of a group of fatty compounds, as lecithin, composed of phosphoric esters, and occurring in living cells.
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Fatty acid
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any of a class of aliphatic acids, esp. palmitic, stearic, or oleic acid, consisting of a long hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group that bonds to glycerol to form a fat.
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Unsaturated fat
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a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain.
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Saturated fat
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fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids.
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Fatty acid
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any of a class of aliphatic acids, esp. palmitic, stearic, or oleic acid, consisting of a long hydrocarbon chain ending in a carboxyl group that bonds to glycerol to form a fat.
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Fat
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wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water
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Chitin
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a nitrogen-containing polysaccharide, related chemically to cellulose, that forms a semitransparent horny substance and is a principal constituent of the exoskeleton, or outer covering, of insects, crustaceans, and arachnids.
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Cellulose
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a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand glucose units
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Glycogen
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a white, tasteless polysaccharide, (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) n , molecularly similar to starch, constituting the principal carbohydrate storage material in animals and occurring chiefly in the liver, in muscle, and in fungi and yeasts.
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Starch
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a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds.
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Polysaccharide
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a carbohydrate, as starch, inulin, or cellulose, containing more than three monosaccharide units per molecule, the units being attached to each other in the manner of acetals, and therefore capable of hydrolysis by acids or enzymes to monosaccharides.
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Glycosidic linkage
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A covalent bond between two glycogin molecules.
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Disaccharide
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any of a group of carbohydrates, as sucrose or lactose, that yield monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
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Monosaccharide
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a carbohydrate that does not hydrolyze, as glucose, fructose, or ribose, occurring naturally or obtained by the hydrolysis of glycosides or polysaccharides.
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Hydrolysis
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chemical decomposition in which a compound is split into other compounds by reacting with water.
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Dehydration reaction
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a subset of elimination reactions.
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Condensation reaction
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a chemical reaction in which two molecules or moieties combine to form one single molecule, together with the loss of a small molecule.
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Macromolecule
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a very large molecule, as a colloidal particle, protein, or esp. a polymer, composed of hundreds or thousands of atoms.
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enantiomer
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either of a pair of optical isomers that are mirror images of each other.
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geometric isomer
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each of two or more chemical compounds having the same molecular formula but a different geometric arrangement
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structural isomer
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one of two or more compounds that contain the same number and kinds of atoms but that differ significantly in their geometric arrangement
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hydrocarbon
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any of a class of compounds containing only hydrogen and carbon, as an alkane, methane, CH 4 , an alkene, ethylene, C 2 H 4 , an alkyne, acetylene, C 2 H 2 , or an aromatic compound, benzene, C 6 H 6 .
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acid precipitation
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aving increased acidity caused by environmental factors
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buffer
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any substance or mixture of compounds that, added to a solution, is capable of neutralizing both acids and bases without appreciably changing the original acidity or alkalinity of the solution.
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pH
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the symbol for the logarithm of the reciprocal of hydrogen ion concentration in gram atoms per liter, used to express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution on a scale of 0 to 14, where less than 7 represents acidity, 7 neutrality, and more than 7 alkalinity.
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base
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a substance that can accept hydrogen ions or more generally, donate electron pairs
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aqueous solution
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a solution in which the solvent is water.
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solute
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the substance dissolved in a given solution.
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acid
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a compound usually having a sour taste and capable of neutralizing alkalis and reddening blue litmus paper
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hydroxide ion
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the anion OH−.
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hydrogen ion
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ionized hydrogen of the form H + , found in aqueous solutions of all acids.
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hydrophobic
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having little or no affinity for water.
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colloid
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. a substance made up of a system of particles with linear dimensions in the range of about 10 −7 to 5 × 10 −5 cm dispersed in a continuous gaseous, liquid, or solid medium whose properties depend on the large specific surface area
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hydrophillic solvent
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A solvent in whose molecules there is either a permanent separation of positive and negative charges, or the centers of positive and negative charges do not coincide
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solution
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a homogeneous, molecular mixture of two or more substances.
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evaporative cooling
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The use of evaporation to pull heat away from an object
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heat of vaporization
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The amount of heat required to convert a unit mass of a liquid at its boiling point into vapor without an increase in temperature.
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heat temperature
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how hot the heat is
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kinetic energy
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the energy of a body or a system with respect to the motion of the body or of the particles in the system.
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surface tension
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the elasticlike force existing in the surface of a body, esp. a liquid, tending to minimize the area of the surface, caused by asymmetries in the intermolecular forces between surface molecules.
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adhesion
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the molecular force of attraction in the area of contact between unlike bodies that acts to hold them together.
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cohesion
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the molecular force between particles within a body or substance that acts to unite them
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polar molecule
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a molecule in which the centroid of the positive charges is different from the centroid of the negative charges.
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products
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a substance obtained from another substance through chemical change.
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reactants
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any substance that undergoes a chemical change in a given reaction.
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hydrogen bond
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a type of chemical bond in which a hydrogen atom that has a covalent link with one of the electronegative atoms forms an electrostatic link with another electronegative atom in the same or another molecule.
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ionic compounds
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chemical compound in which ions are held together in a lattice structure by ionic bonds.
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ionic bond
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the electrostatic bond between two ions formed through the transfer of one or more electrons.
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anion
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a negatively charged ion, as one attracted to the anode in electrolysis.
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cation
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a positively charged ion that is attracted to the cathode in electrolysis.
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ion
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an electrically charged atom or group of atoms formed by the loss or gain of one or more electrons
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polar covalent bond
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a bond between two non-metals with different electronegativities.
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nonpolar colvalent bond
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A bond in which electrons are shared between elements having a difference in electronegativity
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electronegativity
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containing negative electricity; tending to migrate to the positive pole in electrolysis.
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double bond
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a chemical linkage consisting of two covalent bonds between two atoms of a molecule
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molecular formula
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a chemical formula that indicates the kinds of atoms and the number of each kind in a molecule of a compound.
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structural formula
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a chemical formula showing the linkage of the atoms in a molecule diagrammatically
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single bond
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a chemical linkage consisting of one covalent bond between two atoms of a molecule
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molecule
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the smallest physical unit of an element or compound, consisting of one or more like atoms in an element and two or more different atoms in a compound.
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protons
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a positively charged elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of all atomic nuclei
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valence shell
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an electron of an atom, located in the outermost shell of an atom
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valence electron
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an electron of an atom, located in the outermost shel of an atom
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potential energy
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the energy of a body or a system with respect to the position of the body or the arrangement of the particles of the system.
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energy
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an exertion of such power
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radioactive isotope
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a radioactive isotope is not stable and usually has a half life.
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isotopes
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any of two or more forms of a chemical element, having the same number of protons in the nucleus, or the same atomic number, but having different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus, or different atomic weights.
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mass number
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the integer nearest in value to the atomic weight of an atom and equal to the number of nucleons in the nucleus of the atom.
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electrons
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an elementary particle that is a fundamental constituent of matter, having a negative charge
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neutrons
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an elementary particle having no charge
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matter
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the substance or substances of which any physical object consists
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element
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one of a class of substances that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.
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compound
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a pure substance composed of two or more elements whose composition is constant.
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