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214 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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All blood cells come from ________ which are
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stem cells; juvenile cells not yet gone through full development
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Stem cells are _________ cells found in the __________and can become either _____ or ______ cells
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pluripotent; bone marrow; red,white
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any irregular molecular shape that provokes an immune response is an
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antigen
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What happens when a B cell docks on to microbe
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B cell is stimulated into making many clones of itself
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Secreter cells are B cells that do not have ________ amino acids because
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hydrophobic; they want to secrete antibodies into the system in order to fight off microbes
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The purpose of _________ B cells is to stick around and fight off the microbe a second time around speeding up immune response
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memory
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When an antibodies cover microbe, restricting its activities
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neutralization
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When a microbe is covered with antibodies allowing macrophages to gobble up and digest it
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optimization
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Microbe covered with antibody binds with the _________ system in which _______ proteins build up causing a pore to open in the microbe causing it to blow up due to __________
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complement; complement; osmotic pressure
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disulfide bonds are part of the structure of a(n)
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antibody, t-cell receptor, MHC molecules
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an epitope is a
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precise molecular structure found on the end of an antigen
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Antibodies grabbing ends on their antibodies vary at the ____ grabbing end. Light chains contain ___ and ____ sections while heavy chains have ___ ___ and ___. These sections are randomly chosen through a process called ___ __________
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V; V,J; V,J,D; DNA rearrangement
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Innate immunity is seen when....
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a simple cut and inflammatory response occurs
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Damage to tissue activates ______ cells which release _______ to dilate nearby blood vessels
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mast; histamine
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White blood cells have (independent, dependent) movement
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independent (ameboid)
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_________ and other phagocytic white cells have receptors for molecules commonly found on the surface of a pathogen
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macrophages
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When innate immunity doesn't work out, an infection may occur and microbes will accumulate in ____ _____ where ______ _______ slows down circulation
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lymph nodes; low pressure
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A phagocytic white cell that operates much like a macrophage which will digest microbe and migrate to lymph system where they.....
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dendritic cell; interacts with other cells of the immune system
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A lymph valve is _____ way towards heart and has ____ pressure
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one; high
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110 amino acid exon is part of the structure of the
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CD8, CD4, MHC, antibody
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What has alpha helix of hydrophobic amino acids to help anchor it into a cell's plasma membrane
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T cell receptor, memory Y cell receptors (antibody), MHC, CD4 and CD8
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______ and _______ receptors are unique per person
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antibody; t cell
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Class 1 MHC can be found on (immune, every) and class 2 are found on (immune, every) cell and are (the same, different) for each cell in a persons body but _______ to every person
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every; immune; the same; unique
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Antibody receptor is made up of _____ and ______ chains while the T cell receptor is made up of ____ and ___ chains
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heavey, light; alpha, beta
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MHC self markers are G__________
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Glycoproteins
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if a cell is displaying a piece of microbe on its class 1 MHC that means
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kill this cell because a virus is multiplying inside
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If a cell is displaying a piece of microbe onto its class 2 MHC then....
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a macrophage has ingested it and is using it to make a regiment of B cells and T cells
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Cytotoxic T cells will find a cell displaying a piece of microbe on its _________ MHC and will then
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class 1; dock using its CD8 to anchor, then release preforins to make holes into the cell then send out granzymes into those pores which will initiate apoptosis
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Helper T cells will find a macrophage displaying a piece of microbe on its _________ MHC and then
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latch onto the class 2 MHC with is CD4 and it is then stimulated through cytokines sent from cell to form a large clone of itself.
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MHC are produced by a variety of genes that are highly ________ meaning they are many forms of alleles
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polymorphic
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Once a helper T cell is signaled to form a large clone of itself it will then send signals to ______ cells and _______ T cells to form large clones of themselves. Without this stimulation by Th then
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B; cytotoxic; there would be a more sluggish immune response
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Explain how B cells interact with Helper T cells
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Binds to antigen with its antibody, then does endocytosis of bound antigen, will then digest the microbe inside, then puts a microbe out onto its CLASS 2 MHC, then it will display its microbe on its class 2 MHC in order for a matching helper T cell to come along
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Ways Helper T cell will interact with a B cell to get it to form a clone
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Finds B cell with matching antigen receptor, will then dock on using CD4, and then send cytokines to stimulate B cell to form clone
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After an infection, clones of ______ ____ and _____ cells will be left over
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B cells, Helper T cells, and Cytotoxic T cells
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B cells mature in the _______ _______ while T cells mature in the _______
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bone marrow; thymus
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Monoclonal antibodies are antibodies of.... and are custom made antibodies to a particular antigen
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just one shape
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How are monoclonal antibodies made?
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Immunization of target antigen is done triggering an immune response. Hybridomas are created through fusion of B cell with cancerous B cell. A selective medium will only allow hybridomas to grow. Fused cells that lived are picked and put into wells where antigen was added to see which react. The well that produces antibodies contains the immortal B cell unique to that antigen
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reverse transcriptase can
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take RNA and use as template for DNA
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Steps as HIV enters cell
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RNA is transcribed using reverse transcriptase, the viral DNA then enters the host nucleus where the provirus is integrated into host DNA but inactive. The mRNA copy will the be translated into the parts of the virus. The mRNA will be translated at the RER to form the outer lipid cover of the virus.
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The first opening of the sea urchin gastrula will become the ________ therefore it is a ________
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anus; deuterostome
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In the formation of the sea urchin gastrula, the first cells that detach from their neighbors become part of the
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mesoderm
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Skin, nervous system brain, hair, lens of eye are all part of the
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ectoderm
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Inner lining of the organs (digestive tract, lungs, bladder) come from
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endoderm
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Muscle blood bone and sex organs are all derived from
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mesoderm
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Mesoderm compact to form N_________ which sends signals to E_________ above it. In response, cells start changing their shape into wedge like shapes which loop around and close in on itself to form _________
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Notochord; ectoderm; central nervous system
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Mesoderm around the neural tube condense to ________ to form _________
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somites; muscle and various bones
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Notochord becomes the
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disk between vertebrea
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Microfilaments use _________ to pinch inwards to form wedge
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myosin
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Cell elongates while forming a wedge using _________
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microtubules
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_________ is a signal sent from one group of cells to another group of cells to alter their pathway of development. This signal goes to __ of recipient cells and changes their pattern of __________
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Induction; DNA; gene expression
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In formation of eye the first step is:
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neural ectoderm sends signal to surface ectoderm to change shape and become lens of eye which chucks its nucleus to become clear and crystaline.
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Second signal in eye formation is
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developing lens will signal neural ectoderm to form a cup which becomes the retina
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In formation of eye, the last signal is
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lens signals ectoderm above it to become clear, the cornea
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What tissue becomes depends on _______ _______ it receives
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inductive signal
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Every cell body has full genetic information of first cell
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genomic equivalence
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Early embrionic cells have _______ which means they can become anything
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totipotence
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Transcrpition factors distributed unequally will result in
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an undeterminate shape
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The _________ of the RNA is where RNA polymerase binds
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promoter
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the ________ _________ of the RNA is the gene switch that regulates transcribed genes
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regulatory region
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_____ polymerase has a poor affinity for DNA.
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RNA
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The accumulation of __________ ________ at a particular place on DNA decides whether RNA polymerase will bind there often, sometimes, or not at all
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Transcription Factors
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Enhancer region on RNA is composed of
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regulatory transcription factors
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Activators are
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unique transcription factors
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Mediator proteins are important because
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They help to position RNA polymerase at the promoter region
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the outer layer of the blastula is the _______ which will become the placenta
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trophoblast
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The embryo is formed from the ________ (inner cell mass)
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epiblast
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If blastula splits in half then...
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identical twins form with individual placentas
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If inner cell mass splits then...
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identical twins will form that will share a placenta
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A neuron at rest is about _____ mV due to
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-70; large molecules inside cell (predominantly neg.), differential pump, differential leakage by ungated ion channels
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Ungated ion channels are (specific, unspecific) and let (less, more) K+ out then Na+ in. The are also composed of ______ amino acids to allow positive charge pass through
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specific; more; polar
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A neuron has (low,high) concentration of K+ at rest
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high
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ungated ion channels are (unspecific,specific) and let (more,less) K+ out than Na+ in
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specific, more
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ungated ion channels are composed of _______ amino acids in order to allow positive charge flow through
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polar
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the purpose of leaky channels in neurons is to
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keep differential maintained
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sodium potasium pump is powered by ATP and lets 3 ____ out for every 2 ____ in
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Na+; K+
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Voltage gated ion channels are (alpha, beta) helix channels that go through _______ change depending on
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alpha; allosteric; electrical environment
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_______ channels open and close depending on chemical signal
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chemically gated ion
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If interior of neuron reaches -50 mV then.... until interior ________ at 40 mV
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Na+ Channels open up; depolarizes
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At 40 mV _____ channels open up as ____ channels get closed off by loop due to....
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k+; Na+; attraction due to action potential
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When Na channels close, so much K+ rushes out that.... and at this time Na + channels....
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neuron becomes hyperpolarized; doubly close making them unresponsive
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Why does depolarization not travel backwards?
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Because the back part of the neuron is hyperpolarized, and Na+ channels are unresponsive
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Why is the way the depolarization spike travels down the neuron beneficial?
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because the last signal is just as strong as the first
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Axon Hillcock has high number of
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voltage gated Na+ channels
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At the synapse, depolarization causes
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voltage gated Ca2+ channels to open
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When the Ca++ channels open up in the neuron, what happens?
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Ca++ rushes in and signals vesicles of neurotransmitters to fuse with the end of the neuron (Synapse)
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Neuro transmitters will bind to ______ gated ion channels in the _____-_____ membrane
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ligand; post-synaptic
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If an excititory transmitter binds to ligand gate ion channels it will open up ____ channels of _____ allowing....
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Na+; dendrite; threshold to be reached
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If an inhibitory transmitter binds to ligand gated ion channels it will...
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let K+ out, which will never allow neuron to fire due to negative charge
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Temporal Sumation is when
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Firings from same source are close enough in time to cause threshold to be reaches
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When two sources release enough Na+ to reach threshold
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Spatial Sumation
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Schwann cells insulate neurons with ___ ____ and (slow down, Speed up) signal conduction
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myelin sheaths; speed up
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Gaps in the Myelin sheaths of certain axons where an action potential may be generated
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node of ranvier
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In Saltatory conduction of neurons depolarization takes place at _____ __ _______ but no depolarization occurs in areas of ________
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node of Ranvier; schwann cells
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Touch and Pain have ____ sensitive ion channels
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pressure; deforming the plasma membrane opens ion channels and starts depolarization
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eyes have ____ sensitive ion channels
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light
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Nose has _____ gated ion channels where...
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chemically; molecule binding causes allosteric change
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Intensity of pain is conveyed through
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frequency of firing
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Less than __ % of total ions inside and outside neuron move during depolarization
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1
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wiring by firing
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neuronal selection
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Young neurons that dont get stimulated undergo
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apoptosis
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if stimulated, brain neurons release _______ ______ to eye neurons it responded to
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growth factors
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Connection between neuronal selection and clonal selection
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experience influences connections, excess is made at first by random (blind process), and cells that work are kept
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Skeletal muscle is formed by fusion of stem cells to form muscle called _______
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myoblasts
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myoblasts get together and pull ___________ membrane and _______. This happens through a change in genes by master control gene which sends out _____ ______ to regulatory region of other genes
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myoblasts; plasma; nuclei; transcription factors
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T Tubules are
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indentations of plasma membrane in myoblasts that run into the interior of the muscle fiber
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E.R combine to form the __.__ of myoblasts which is
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S.R; a bag of Ca++
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_____ and ____ combine into regular arrays of subunits called sarcomeres
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actin; myosin
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All muscle action is a
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contraction
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_____ molecules are globular proteins that combine to form microfilaments
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actin
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ATPase...
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holds ATP and goes through allosteric change and then cuts ATP to ADP + P to go through another allosteric change
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How does contraction occur
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1. ATP bounded to ATPase causes myosin head to be unbound from actin
2. ATPase splits ATP to ADP and P which makes it bind to the actin in a different spot (high energy state) 3.ADP + P is released causing "power stroke" 4. ATP binds to myosin head again to release it |
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hard wiring is where
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growth of neurons towards each other happens
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soft wiring is where
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rest of learning occurs changes in ion channels between neurons causes this
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Ca++ acts on _______ to make it move _______ to allow myosin to contact actin binding sites
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toponin; tropomyosin
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ACh(Acetylcholine) is a neuro transmitter from nerves to _________ _____
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skeletal tissue
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ACh will bind to ____ channels causing an allosteric change allowing ____ to flow in causing depolarization of muscle
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Na+ for both
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Depolarization will travel along motor fiber into interior via _-____ to allow positive charge to get near S.R
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T-Tubule
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Depolarization in muscle near SR causes ___ to flow down its concentration gradient and attach to ______
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Ca++; troponin
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Ca++ pump are present to bring ____ ____ back to rest to get ready for another muscle contraction
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motor fiber
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Someone who has a defect not allowing them to pump Ca++ back into SR will have
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muscles that continually contract
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temporal summation in muscles
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Depolarizations happen close together in time allowing more Ca++ to be released longer
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Spatial Summation in muscles
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Activates several muscle fibers to contract
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The ____ is the largest blood vessel FROM Heart
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artery
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_______ are smallest in diameter (delivery vessels)
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capillaries
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_____ is the largest vessel BACK to heart
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Vein
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Atrium is the ____ chamber of the heart
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first
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______ is the main pump (puts high pressure)
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ventricle
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Order from heart to lungs to heart rest of body and then back to heart
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Right ventricle (O2 poor) through pulmonary artery to lungs back through pulmonary vein (O2 rich) into left atrium then through left ventricle aorta to body back through vana cava (O2 poor) back into right atrium
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vana Cava
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largest vein returning to heart
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Fish hearts have ___ chambers an ____ and ____. What is wrong with this style?
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two; ventricle, atria; low blood pressure not a hard enough pump for a large body
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Frogs have a ____ chambered heart with 2_____ and 1 _____ . Why is this system not good?
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3; atria; ventricle; Because oxygenated and deoxygenated blood are not separate
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Why is a four chambered heart good?
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allows for animals with fast metabolisms, and who use energy at a fast rate to get sufficient amount of energy
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Where are the four valves located in heart and why are they there?
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One between left atria and ventricle and one between right atria and ventricle to prevent back flow into atria. 2 between each ventricle and arterie to prevent back flow into ventricle.
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Lowest blood pressure is found in
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veins
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A _____ is a group of specialized cells in right atrium. These cells are _____ _____ due to leaky ion channels
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pace maker; self depolarizing
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Depolarization from pacemaker flows down cells of _____ via ______ junctions causing it to contract pumping blood
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atria; gap
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Electrical signal converges at the _________ which holds it back .1 s and sends signal to ventricles via _____ _____ (plasma membrane that can depolarize)
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AV Node; purkanje fibers
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Since the cells of the ventricles are linked via ____ junctions, both ventricles will contract at the same time
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gap
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Sympathetic neurons will ______ pace maker depolarization rate
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increase
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parasympathetic neurons ______ heart rate
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decrease
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___ and ____ input affect rate of depolarization in pacemaker
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nerve; hormone
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valves are needed in veins and lymph vessels due to
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low pressure
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put in order from heart and back to heart : Aorta, capillary, venule, vena cava, arteriole
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1 aorta, 2 arteriole, 3 capillary, 4 venule, 5 vena cava
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osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure within _________ causing interstitial fluid to ______ (and opposite)
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capillary; enter
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Air comes into lungs via
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trachea-->bronchus-->bronchiole--->Alveoli
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Bohr shift is due to high levels of _____ which occur around ____ metabolizing tissue
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CO2; actively
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Equation by which CO2 travels in blood to lungs
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H2O +CO2 ---->H2CO3--->HCO3- + H+
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Why does CO2 turn back to pure CO2 at lungs?
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due to low CO2 concentration at lungs, the equation will be reversed
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high CO2 concentrations causes blood to become _____ which causes heavier breathing to dump CO2
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acidic
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Valves located in digestive tract:
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Between esophagus and stomach. Between stomach and small intestine. Between small intestin and large intestine. Betw large intestine and rectum. Between rectum and anus
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Live produces ____ while gall bladder stores it
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bile
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Pancrease produces ________ which digests fats
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lipase
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cells in pits of stomache secrete _____ to protect stomach, _______ which is cleaved by HCL into ______ which breaks down long chains of _______
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mucous; pepsinogen; pepsin; amino acids
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________ released through saliva in mouth is what first begins to digest _______
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amylase; carbohydrates
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Pancrease releases ________ that returns acid chyme to bodily pH
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bicarbonate
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Last step of digestion occurs in _________ through the Villi
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duodenum
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_____ located within villi is part of the lymph system
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lacteal
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Bile _______ fats
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emulsifies
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once fats enter into epithelial cell, it gets put back together and coated with _________ to form a _______. This is so...
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polar proteins; chlyomicron; it can enter into blood system
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chlyomicron will enter into _______ which takes it to ____ _____
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lacteal; vana cava
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Large intestine...
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takes back water
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Cecum contains
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prokaryotes that help breakdown cellulose
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renal medula is
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interior of kidneys
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renal cortex is
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surface of kidney
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there is ____ blood pressure at kidneys
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High
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Most nutrients and water enter _______ _______ by diffusion and active transport. Most useful molecules are returned to blood
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proximal tubule
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Bowman's capsule is
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cluster of capillaries
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____ blood pressure causes H2O and small particles into Bowman's capsule
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high
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Highest osmolarity of fluid inside nephron can be found at the
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Loop of henle
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Highest osmolarity of the fluid OUTSIDE nephron is at
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inner medula area below loop of henle
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Active transport of most NaCl in nephron occurs are the
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thick part of the ascending limb
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Most NaCl diffusing out of nephron occurs at
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thin part of ascending limb
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Urea can leave nephron at _______ and can be taken up again at _____
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lower part of collecting duct; thin part of ascending limb
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Alchohol affects ______ function which interferes with ____ production from ___ pituitary. Without it _____ in walls of collecting ducts become few therefore ____ water is sent to bladder
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hypothalamus; ADH; post.; aquaporins; more
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___ cells on pancrease release insulin into blood when stimulated when blood sugar level is ____. This causes...
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beta; high; body cells to take up glucose for energy or liver to uptake it and store it as glycogen
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when sugar level is ___, ____ cells are stimulated to release ____ which causes liver to breakdown glycogen into glucose
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low; alpha; glucagon
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Hypothalamus is part of the
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diancephalon
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Posterior pituitary has grown out from the
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hypothalamus itself
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Anterior pituitary has grown from the
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roof of the mouth
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posterior pituitary secretes two hormones that are made by the ____ ___ of hypothalamus. ADH and Oxytocin
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neurosecretory cells
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ADH
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kidney dilution of urine
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Oxytocin
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Milk release, contractions
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Two hormones from ant. pituitary that has a direct affect on body
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Growth hormone and Prolactin which is responsible for milk synthesis and breast development
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______ controls release of hormone from Ant. Pituitary through ______. Hormone from ant. pituitary control hormones from other glands
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hypothalamus; blood vessel
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FSH, LH, and GnRH can be found... and affect...
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in both males and females; steroid production in gonads
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Adrenal glands are involved in
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both quick and long term response to stress
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Adrenal ____ releases epinephrine to boost metabolic rates which is a _____ response to stress
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medulla; quick
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Adrenal _____ releases steroid for breakdown of fats and proteins and increasing blood pressure. This is part of a ______ term response to stress
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cortex; long
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Adrenal cortex is signaled via ____ vessel by ______ released from the hypothalamus
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blood; ACTH
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Adrenal medulla is signaled via neurons of the
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sympathetic nervous system
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Enzymatic head of sperm was derived from
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golgi body
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The middle piece of sperm is composed of
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mitochondrion
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Follicle cells will become _____ which produces ____
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corpus luteum; estrogen and progesterone
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Endometrium is the
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cells lining the uterus
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the _____ sac is a fluid filled sac around the embryo
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amniotic
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Somatic cells produce
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nutrients and steroid hormones
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Follicle cells in the ovary come from____ and has the ability to act as a ______
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somatic cells; gland
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Ovum is produced in meiosis (1 or 2)
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2
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____ signals corpus luteum to produce estrogen and progesterone
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LH
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Sertoli cells are
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somatic cells that provide nutrients and hormones for the sperm
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The chorion is
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the outer most layer of the embryo and will be part of the placenta
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Locus is
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a place on a chromosome in which a gene is located
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Testcross is always
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homozygous recessive
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metaphase of Meiosis one differs from that of meiosis two how?
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It has homologous pairs lined up side by side, while meiosis two has the chromosomes lined up single file
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in G1 of interphase
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chromosomes lengthen and proteins for synthesis are produced
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in S phase
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DNA is replicated
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G2 phase
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protein are produced and chromosome begins to condense while MTOC's duplicate
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in prophase
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MTOC's travel to opposite sides, cell envelope breaks down, DNA condenses to visible chromosomes
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Telophase
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is the opposite of prophase
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im plantation occurs, outer cells of blastula will make a new hormone ____ which acts like LH maintaining ______
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HCG; endometrium through keeping corpus luteum which produces estrogen and progesterone to maintain endometrium
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Independent law of assortment states
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homologous chromosomes pairs sort out independently
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Law of segregation states
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get only one chromosome containing one allele of a gene
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Monohybrid cross
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(RrxRr) always result in phenotype thats 3/4 dominant and 1'4 recessive
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Dihybrid cross
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(RrYy x RrYy)
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