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248 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the 7 characteristics of living things?
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Organized structure
(Composed of cells) Maintain homeostasis (Maintain constant body temperature) Metabolism (Consume food, produce energy) Growth Reproduction (Produce offspring of same type, pass on parents genes) Responses to stimuli or adaptations to the environment (Rapidly pull hand away from hot stove (while yelping)) Ability to evolve (Populations of organisms evolve in response to the environment) |
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What is Lamarck's theory of evolution?
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1. Organisms evolved because they inherited acquired characteristics
-If you speak 5 languages, your children will be born with the ability to speak 5 languages as well 2. Also proposed law of use and disuse -Organisms are modified during their lifetime through use and disuse of different parts |
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What was Darwin & Wallace's proposal for the mechanism of evolution?
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Natural selection
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What are the 4 postulates for the mechanism of evolution?
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1. Variability in a population
2. Inheritance 3. Reproductive success 4. Natural selection |
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What are the 4 main lines of evidence for evolution?
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1. Fossils
2. Comparative anatomy 3. Embryology 4. Biochemistry/genetics |
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What are the 3 main lines of evidence for evolution?
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1. Artificial selection
2. Observation that it occurs in nature 3. Scientific experiments |
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What are the sections of DNA that give an organism all of its traits?
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Genes
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Prokaryotes have one copy of every gene . What is it called?
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Haploid
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Eukaryotes have two copies of every gene (one from mom, one from dad). What is it called?
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Diploid
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For most genes there are multiple forms, called what?
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Alleles
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What are the alleles that an organism contains in its DNA (the genetic makeup)?
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Genotype
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What are those alleles that are expressed (what is seen)?
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Phenotype
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What has 2 of the same allele (one from mom + one from dad), and no choice for phenotype?
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Homozygous genotype
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What has 2 different alleles (one from mom + one from dad), but only one is expressed as phenotype?
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Heterozygous genotype
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All the genes in all the individuals of a population is called a?
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Gene pool
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What is the amount of a particular allele in a population?
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Allele frequency
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What happens if allele frequencies change from one generation to the next?
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The population is evolving
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What is a population where allele frequencies do not change over generations?
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Equilibrium population
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What are the results in random changes in allele frequencies?
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Genetic drift
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Where can genetic drift result in the complete loss of an allele in only a few generations?
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A very small population
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What are two causes of genetic drift?
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Population bottleneck and the founder effect
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What is a drastic reduction in population size brought about by a natural catastrophe or overhunting, which can rapidly change allele frequencies & reduce genetic variation?
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Population bottleneck
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What occurs when a small number of individuals leave a large population & establish a new isolated population?
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Founder effect
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In what 3 ways can natural selection and sexual selection influence populations (patterns of evolutionary change)?
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1. Directional selection
2. Stabilizing selection 3. Disruptive selection |
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What favors individuals with an extreme-value trait?
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Directional selection
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What favors individuals with the average value of a trait?
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Stabilizing selection
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What favors individuals at both extremes of a trait?
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Disruptive selection
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What is a group of interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups referred to as?
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Species (the biological species concept)
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What are the limitations of the species concept?
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1. Based on ability to interbreed so can’t be used to determine species with asexual reproduction
-Bacteria, yeast 2. Often difficult to tell whether members of 2 different groups interbreed -Especially with fossils |
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What are those that prevent mating between species (5 kinds)?
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Premating isolation mechanisms
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What are those that prevent formation of healthy, fertile hybrids (3 kinds)?
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Postmaking isolation mechanisms
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(Premating isolating mechanisms) What prevents interbreeding because populations live in separate places; not absolute, may be able to breed when barrier is removed, and allows new species to form?
-Melting polar ice brought polar bears and grizzly bears closer |
Geographical isolation
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(Premating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when species don’t mate because they occupy different habitats (in the same area); these animals do not come into contact with one another?
-2 species of garter snakes One lives on land, other in water. Never meet, therefore, never mate |
Ecological isolation
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(Premating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when species can’t interbreed because they breed at different times?
-Bishop pines pollinate in summer, & Monterey pines pollinate in early spring |
Temporal isolation
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(Premating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when species have different courtship & mating rituals/behaviors?
-Songs & plumage of male songbirds are species-specific only attract females of the same species |
Behavioral isolation
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(Premating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when species can’t mate because their reproductive structures are incompatible; in animals with internal fertilization, male & female sex organs may not fit together?
-Snails of species with left-handed spiral shells may be unable to mate with right-handed spiral snails |
Mechanical incompatibility
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(Postmating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when sperm from one species can’t fertilize eggs of another?
-fluids of the female reproductive tract may weaken or kill sperm of another species Prevent the germination of pollen from one species that lands on the flower of another species (in plants) |
Gametic incompatibility
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(Postmating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when hybrid offspring fail to survive to maturity (parents mate, hybrid offspring die); may abort early in development or die shortly after birth; displays behaviors that are mixtures of the 2 parental types?
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Hybrid inviability
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(Postmating isolating mechanisms) What occurs when hybrid offspring are sterile or have reduced fertility (hybrid lives, but can’t reproduce)?
-mule hybrids (a cross between a horse & a donkey) are sterile |
Hybrid infertility
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What is the process by which new species form?
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Speciation
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What are 2 factors of speciation?
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1. The isolation of populations
-prevents gene flow, populations remain dissimilar 2. Genetic divergence of populations must occur -driven by genetic drift or natural selection |
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What are 2 ways in which speciation can occur?
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1. Allopatric speciation
-Populations are geographically separated from each other -More common 2. Sympatric speciation -Populations live in the same geographic area |
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What is life arose from non-life referred to as?
-Maggots=decaying meat, Microbes=broth, and Mice=grain |
Spontaneous generation
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Who disproved the maggots-from-meat idea by keeping flies away from uncontaminated meat with jars?
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Francesco Redi
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Who disproved the maggots-from-meat idea by keeping flies away from uncontaminated meat with jars?
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Louis Pasteur
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What is the gradual selection of molecules?
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Prebiotic chemical evolution
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What were the first scientific attempts to explain origin of life?
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Alexander Oparin & John Haldane
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What were Alexander Oparin & John Haldane's contributions?
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-No O2 on early Earth, but other gases present (hydrogen, methane, etc.)
-Lots of volcanic & electrical activity -High UV rays (no O2 = no ozone) -Repeated meteorite strikes |
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Who mimicked the conditions of early Earth in the laboratory to see if organic molecules would form;
mixed gases that existed in early lifeless environment, and added electrical discharge to simulate lightning? |
Miller & Urey's experiment
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What became the precursors for the formation of life?
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Complex molecules
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What explains the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts inside eukaryotic cells?
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Endosymbiosis hypothesis
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What is the science of naming and classifying organisms?
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Taxonomy
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According to the scientific naming rules, all organisms have a two part name composed of?
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A genus and a species
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What is a group that includes a number of very close related species?
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Genus
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What is a group of organism that are reproductively isolated from other such groups (within the same genus)?
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Species
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What are the three domains of life?
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Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
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Arrange the order of increasing size: bacteria, viruses, eukaryotes
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Viruses, bacteria, eukaryotic cell
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What are the four eukaryotic kingdoms?
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Animalia (animals)
Plantae Fungi Protists (eukaryotic organisms that are not animals, plants, or fungi) |
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Bacteria and Archaea together form a group organisms called?
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Prokaryotes
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What are some major differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
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Prokaryotes are everywhere. They have no nucleus, organelles, and prokaryotes are unicellular
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What bacteria grows together in the form of a "film" or layer on a surface?
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Biofilm
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How do biofilms form?
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Communities of slim-secreting bacteria attached to a surface; some bacteria secret sticky layers of polysaccharide or protein slime- allows them to "stick" to surfaces
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What protective structures produced by rod-shaped bacteria allow bacteria to withstand adverse conditions?
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Endosprores
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True or False: Endospores are reproductive structures formed by bacteria?
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False
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What are thickly wrapped particles of genetic material and a few enzymes that can be stored for long periods of time and survive transport and dispersal methods, and once inhaled or ingested can cause damage or death?
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Endospores
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When a single replicates its DNA (single strand & plasmids), then divides in half, from asexual cell division (produce identical copies) is?
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Binary fission
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How do prokaryotes exchange genetic material without reproducing; allowing for plasmid DNA transfer between donor and recipient?
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Conjugation
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True or False: Conjugation can even occur between two different species of bacteria?
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True
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How do archaea differ from bacteria?
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Both are unicellular
Bacteria have peptidoglycan, archaea don’t No pathogenic archaea identified so far Archaea have different cell membrane lipids than bacteria Archaeal cellular enzymes are similar to those in eukaryotes |
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What are some characteristics of viruses?
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Not a cell (no cell membrane, cytoplasm, organelles), hereditary material is either DNA or RNA surrounded by a layer of protein (capsid), and multiply inside host using host machinery
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A basic virus is composed of?
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Capsid and nucleic acid
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Some viruses may have a?
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Lipid layer
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What only occurs inside a host cell, where virus particles are made in only one host cell?
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Virus replication
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What is a plant virus that consists only of single stranded RNA (lacks capsid)?
Ex. Avacado sunblotch, Cucumber pale fruit disease, Potato spindle tuber disease |
Viroid
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What do viroids contain?
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Single stranded RNA
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What is a infectious protein that lacks nucleic acids?
Ex. (Humans) Kuru — fatal degenerative disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and (Livestock) Bovine spongiform encephalophathy, Scrapie |
Prion
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What do prions contain?
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Proteins
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Protists that have to ingest their food are called?
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Heterotrophs (ex. protozoa)
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Protists that perform photosynthesis are called?
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Autotrophs (ex. algae)
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Photosynthesis in protists occurs in organelles called?
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Chloroplasts
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What do predatory protists use to engulf their prey?
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Pseudopods
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Protists generally use asexual reproduction and may switch what reproduction under stressful conditions?
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Sexual reproduction
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How do protists benefits other organisms?
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Capture solar energy and make it available to other organisms in the ecosystem, Release oxygen, and Serve as a food source
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What are some characteristics of protists?
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Unicellular eukaryotes (some are multicellular), microscopic in size, and can be terrestrial or aquatic
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What are protists types of nutrition?
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Ingest food (heterotrophic)
Absorb nutrients from their surroundings (heterotrophic) Photosynthesis (autotrophic) |
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Which protist nutrition use pseudopods (false feet) to engulf prey, create tiny currents to sweep food in mouth-like openings, and contain food in a membrane-surrounded food vacuole for digestion?
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Protists that ingest food
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Which protist nutrion have free-living types in the soil that decompose organic dead matter, and parasites that live inside the bodies of other organisms, sometimes harming the host?
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Protists that absorb nutrients from their surroundings
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Which protist nutrition are found in oceans, lakes, and ponds, and have photosynthesis take place in the chloroplasts?
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Autotrophic protists (algae)
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What are some pro's of protists?
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Photosynthetic marine protists (algae)
Capture solar energy making it available for others Release oxygen gas Serve as food source (seaweed, plankton) Commercial uses Used to solidify culture medium for microbiology |
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What are some con's of protists?
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Many are human parasites
Also cause plant diseases Marine protists cause ecological damage |
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How do protists reproduce?
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Most reproduce asexually (mitotic division), where two individuals (no gender) exchange genetic material to form an offspring (genetically different from parents)
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What are some characteristics of plants?
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Cell walls (made of cellulose), Multicellular, Photosynthetic (-Trap solar energy and convert it into food, -Serve as nutrient source for non-photosynthetic organisms) Use sexual reproduction
(-The male gamete (sperm) fuses with female gamete (egg) to make embryo, -Embryos are protected & nourished inside the parent plant, -Not seen in closest relatives to plants, green algae) Alternation of generations |
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What kind of plants require a wet environment to reproduce, similar to amphibians, and have gravity and lack of water for solutions?
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Nonvascular plants
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What kind of plants can grow on land, in dry areas, and usually have all the solutions?
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Vascular plants
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What are some characteristics of nonvascular plants?
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They lack true roots, stems, or leaves, have rhizoids (root-like anchoring structures), small size (most are less than 2.5 cm tall)-1. rely on slow diffusion or poorly developed conducting tissues to distribute water and other nutrients 2. no lignin (stiffening agent) in cell walls
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(Nonvascular) What are some characteristics of hornworts?
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-Their sporophytes grow upward from the gametophyte
-Generally have a spiky shape that appears hornlike |
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(Nonvascular) What are some characteristics of liverworts?
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Certain species have a lobed form reminiscent of a liver, palm-like structures are females holding eggs, sperm must swim through water to fertilize eggs
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(Nonvascular) What are some characteristics of mosses?
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Mosses are the most diverse, some have a waterproof coating that retains moisture- allows growth in drier areas like the desert or on rocks, and accumulations of dead mosses form peat, which is used as fuel
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What are some characteristics of vascular plants?
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-Specialized conducting cells
-Lignin -Seedless plants (Ferns) -Seed plants (Gymnosperms, Angiosperms) |
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(Vascular) What are some characteristics of ferns?
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-Swimming sperm (require water for reproduction)
-Do not produce seeds: propagate by spores -Generally small (only a few inches to feet in height) -Most diverse among seedless vascular plants -Only vascular plant to have broad leaves |
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What do vascular plants produce?
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Pollen and seeds
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What kind of plant lacks flowers?
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Gymnosperms
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What are all flowering plants considered?
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Angiosperms
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What are some characteristics of the pollen in vascular seed plants?
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-Tiny grains carrying sperm producing cells
-Dispersed by wind (sperm do not require water to fertilize egg) Sperm and egg fuse to make an embryo (seed) |
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What are some characteristics of the seed in vascular seed plants?
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Comprised of 3 parts:
-Embryonic sporophyte plant -Food supply for the embryo -A protective outer coat |
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What are some characteristics of gymnosperms?
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-Nonflowering seed plants
-Evolved earlier than flowering plants -First fully terrestrial plants to evolve -Currently four groups of gymnosperms: ginkgoes, cycads, conifers, and gnetophytes |
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What are some characteristics of angiosperms?
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-Flowering seed plants (produce flowers and fruits)
-Are the most diverse and widespread of all plants with more than 230,000 species -3 adaptations explain their dominance (flowers, fruits, and broad leaves) |
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What are some characteristics of fungi?
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Eukaryotes
Most are multicellular (yeast are unicellular) Decomposers Cell walls made of chitin Non-motile |
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What are parasites that cause considerable damage to grain crops?
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Rusts and smuts (e.g. corn smut)
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How can fungi destroy plant material that has been harvested for human use?
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e.g. some molds& mildews cause wooden structures to rot
e.g. some secrete enzymes that damage cotton and wool fabrics |
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Athlete's foot, jock itch, & ringworm are cause by what type of fungi?
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That attack the skin
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What yeast are most vaginal infections caused by?
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Candida albicans
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Valley fever & histoplasmosis are caused by what type of fungi?
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That attack the lungs (occurs when the victim inhales spores)
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How are many antibiotics derived from fungi?
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e.g. Penicillin is produced by a mold
e.g. Cyclosporin (fungi used to suppress immune response after organ transplants) |
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How do some fungi benefit agriculture?
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-Some fungal parasites are used to control insect pests such as termites, etc.
-Certain fungi attack mosquitoes which transmit malaria -Wild cultivated mushrooms, like morels and truffles are highly prized -Certain molds impart flavor to cheeses (Roquefort, Camembert, Stilton, Gorgonzola) |
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What are some key features of animals?
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Multicellular, no cell wall, obtain energy by consuming other organisms (heterotrophs), most reproduce sexually, they are motile at some point in the life cycle, and they are able to respond rapidly to external stimuli
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What are a group of similar cells that come together to perform a common function?
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Tissues
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What are the only modern animals that lack tissue?
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Sponges
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T or F: Symmetry is only in animals with tissues?
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True
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Which animals can be divided into roughly equal halves by any plane that passes through the central axis? (ie. jellyfish, coral, anemones)
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Radial symmetry
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Which animals can be divided into mirror-image halves, division is only along one plane that runs down the midline; usually a defined head?
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Bilateral symmetry
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Which phyla is found in most marine & aquatic environments, have a variety of sizes and shapes, only motile as embryos, but some adult can move a few mm a day using cilia (includes sponges)?
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Phylum Porifera
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What are some characteristics of sponges?
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-Lack true tissues and organs
-Body is perforated by tiny pores (water passes through the pores so each can extract oxygen and nutrients) -Composed of multiple single cells that live together for mutual benefit -Each type of cell has a specialized function (nutrition, reproduction) |
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Which phyla have the most diverse and abundant animals on the planet, that include: insects (moths, butterflies, ants, bees, beetles-1/3 of insects), arachnids (spiders, scorpions, ticks-predatory carnivores), myriapods (centipede, millipede-many legs), and crustaceans (crabs, lobster, shrimp, barnacle-aquatic)?
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Phylum Arthropoda
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What are some characteristics of the phylum arthropoda?
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-Have an exoskeleton (outside the body)-protects against predators, provides waterproof covering, and exoskeleton must be molted (shed) periodically to allow animal to grow, -Nervous system has a brain & nerves that run throughout the body, -Finely coordinated movement & complex behavior, -Possess well developed sensory structures (eg. compound eyes)
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What are some characteristics of insects?
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-Only vertebrates that can fly
-Undergo a process called metamorphosis (radical change from a juvenile body to adult body, juvenile form is worm-like; called larvae) -Bombardier beetle produces a hot, toxic spray that protects the beetle from ants and other predators |
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Which phyla are exclusively marine, have hedgehog skin, and include sea urchins, starfish, sea cucumbers, sand dollars, and sea lilies?
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Phylum Echinodermata
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What are some characteristics of the phylum echinodermata?
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-Larvae exhibit bilateral symmetry; show radial symmetry
-Possess an endoskeleton (internal skeleton) -Have a primitive nervous system with no distinct brain -Many are able to regenerate lost body parts (e.g. parts of a sea star are able to form a whole animal) |
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What are some benefits of invertebrates?
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-Food sources (crab, shrimp, insects, etc)
-Pollinators (bees, butterflies, etc) -Decomposers (beetles, millipedes, ants, slugs, etc) |
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What are some medical uses of invertebrates?
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-Leeches in reconstructive surgery remove excess blood & promote blood flow, -Blowfly maggots rid wounds & ulcers of dying tissue that interferes with healing or causes infection, -Some sponges contain useful chemicals, -Drug spongistatin treats fungal infections of AID patients, - Eribulin may treat breast cancer from the Halichondria sponge
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What are some harm that invertebrates can cause?
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-Tapeworm infect improperly cooked beef, pork or fish, -Worms attach to the lining of the intestine & can grow more than 20ft, -Release eggs that are shed in the host feces continuing the infective life cycle, -Hookworm larvae bore into human feet, travel to the intestine, and cause continuous bleeding, -Heartworms transmit to cats & dogs by the bite of an infected mosquito
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What are some continuing harms that invertebrates can cause?
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-Some arachnids, spiders, and scorpions inject paralyzing venom into prey
-Ticks and mosquitoes can spread Lyme disease, and malaria -Some insects, scorpions, and ants can sting or bite which could be dangerous for those with allergies |
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What varies in size from microscopic sea squirts to whales more than 100ft long, have a flexible supporting rod (notochord), hollow dorsal nerve cord, gill groves or slits, and a tail?
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Chordate
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What is a stiff flexible rod extending the length of the body, may only appear during embryonic development (e.g. humans-provides support for body & muscles)
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Notochord
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What lies above the digestive tract, and the front part of it forms the brain?
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Nerve cord
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What is located in the pharynx (behind the mouth), eventually forms gills, and may only appear as grooves during embryonic development?
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Pharyngeal gill slits
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What is the chordate tail that extends past the anus, contains muscle tissue, and may only appear during embryonic development (humans)?
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Post-anal tail
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T or F: Key chordate features are best seen during embryonic development?
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True
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Only the nerve cord is retained in adults, so what do we end up losing?
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Notochord, gill slits, tail
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What is a group that includes all of the organisms descended from a common ancestor?
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Clade
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What clades make up the chordates?
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Lancelets, tunicates, and craniates (hagfishes)
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What are invertebrate marine filter-feeders, small fish-like, retain all 4 chordate features as adults, live half-buried in the sand with only the front end of their bodies exposed, and food particles are drawn into the mouth?
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Lancelets
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What are also invertebrate marine filter-feeders, that include sea squirts, and larvae are motile & exhibit key chordate features?
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Tunicates
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What includes all chordates with a skull enclosing a brain, and includes hagfishes: invertebrates, and vertebrates: embryonic notochord is replaced by a backbone (or vertebral column)?
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Craniates
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What lack jaws, feed primarily on worms, secrete massive quantities of slime as a defense against predators, and lack a true backbone (but have a brain & braincase)
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Hagfishes
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What are some vertebrate adaptations?
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Internal skeleton: can grow & repair itself
Jaws: allow animals to eat a much wider range of food Paired appendages: help stabilize movement (e.g. fins, legs, wings) Brain complexity: allow animals to perceive the environment in more detail & allow better responses to stimuli |
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What live in both fresh and salt water, jawless (like hagfishes)-a round sucker that surround the mouth, and some parasitize fish (will attach to host with a sucker-like mouth, has teeth on its tongue which are used to create holes to suck blood and bodily fluids, and are an invasion of great lakes?
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Lampreys
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What are marine animals, including sharks & rays, possess jaws and a cartilaginous skeleton, and their body is protected by a leathery skin embedded with tiny scales?
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Cartilaginous fishes
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What are the most diverse & abundant vertebrates that include regular fish & eels, bony fish found in freshwater and marine habitats, distinguished by the structure of their fins (formed by webs of skin, supported by boney spines), worldwide human food source, reduced by 10% populations have declined due to overfishing?
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Ray-finned fishes
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What include coelacanths and lungfishes, have fleshy round fins that contain bones surrounded by a thick layer of muscle, and some of these fins help drag fish over land (gave rise to the first vertebrates on land: amphibians)?
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Lobe-finned fiishes
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What lobe-finned fish have gills, lungs, and some even survive when water dries up by burrowing into mud?
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Lungfish
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What includes frogs, toads, and salamanders, is greek for "double life", begin life adapted to water, mature into semi-terrestrial adults with lungs (most respire through lungs/moist skin), most have 4 limbs, skin must be kept moist to avoid desiccation when out of water, 1st transition to land, but have aquatic egg/larval stages?
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Amphibians
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What respire exclusively through lungs, adapted for life on land, more efficient lungs than amphibians , skeleton provides better support & more efficient movement on land, and include lizards, snakes, alligators, turtles, crocodiles, and birds?
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Reptiles
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What are three adaptations that allow reptiles to live on land?
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-Tough scaly skin: protects the body & resists water loss
-Internal fertilization: male deposits sperm in the female body -Shelled amniotic egg: encases the embryo in a liquid-filled membrane, preventing it from drying out on land |
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What are a distinctive group of reptiles by their feathers, retain scales on their legs, are adapted for flight (-provide lift, control, and insulation, -nervous system provides coordination, balance, and acute eyesight), and are warm-blooded (endothermic), unlike all other cold-blooded reptiles (exothermic)?
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Birds
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What are most that have legs for running rather than crawling, have sweat, scent, and sebaceous (oil-producing) glands (not found in other vertebrates), and brain is highly developed (-unparalleled curiosity & learning ability, can alter behavior on experience=learn , and have extended parental care after birth)?
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Mammals
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What is any observable activity of a living animal?
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Behavior
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What is the study of animal behavior?
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Ethology
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What are some example of behavior?
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-Moths fly to a light
-Bluebirds sing, wolves howl -Humans dance, play sports & wage war -Cats stalk mice |
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What form of behavior is usually genetically-based (nature)?
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Innate behavior
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What form of behavior is usually environment-based (nurture)?
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Learned behavior
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What kind of behavior can be performed without prior experience, performed to completion the first time (animal is at the right age, and correct motivational state encounters a particular stimulus), and the behavior appears even if it never been taught this behavior?
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Innate behavior
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What kind of behavior requires experience (e.g. the process by which a human learns language, and a cougar teaching her babies how to hunt)?
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Learned behavior
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What are types of learned behavior?
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-Habituation
-Conditioning (classical and operant conditioning) -Insight learning |
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What is a a decline in response to a repeated stimulus, this ability prevents an animal from wasting its energy and attention on irrelevant stimuli (e.g. sea anemone will retract its tentacles when touched, but will stop if done frequently, and over time humans get accustomed with sounds they're not used to)?
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Habituation
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What is a learned association between a stimulus and a response?
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Conditioning
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What is it when an animal learns to perform a response, normally cause by one stimulus, to a new stimulus (i.e. Pavolv's dogs)?
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Classical conditioning
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What allows animals to learn behaviors to receive awards or to avoid punishments, a learning technique often used to train animals, trial-and-error learning is one type (new and appropriate responses to stimuli are acquired through experience), e.g. food that taste good/bad (food that makes you sick); if a toad captures a bee and is stung, it'll learn to avoid encounters with bees ?
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Operant conditioning
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What is problem solving without trial and error, animals can solve certain problems without prior experience, done by mentally manipulating concepts (requires high level of intelligence), e.g. making tools (humans and chimpanzees do this)?
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Insight learning
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What is a signal by one organism that causes another organism to change its behavior; exchange of information?
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Communication
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What kind of communication are most effective over short distances, and specific movements (or static images) convey a message?
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Visual displays
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What kind of communication is effective over longer distances (conveyed by variations in sound pattern, volume, and pitch; can attract predators), e.g. sheep can tell each other apart by the different sounds they produce, and dogs bark or whine to convey emotions?
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Communication by sound
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What kind of communication persists over long periods of time, can influence others behavior of the same species; which are called pheromones?
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Chemical communication
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What are some characteristics of pheromones?
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-Not detectable by other species (don't attract predators)
-Act as a sign post, persisting over time, marking animal boundaries -Can cause immediate change in the behavior of the detecting animal (e.g.. foraging termites detect food and leave trail of pheromones for other to follow) |
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What kind of communication helps establish and maintain bonds, especially in humans and primates, gestures include kissing, nuzzling, patting, petting, grooming, etc, important to human development and well-being that cements the bond btw parent and offspring, and also be a prelude to sexual activity (land snails)?
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Touch
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The difference between births and deaths =?
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Natural increase in a population
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The difference between immigration and emigration =?
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Net migration in a population
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What are two factors that affect birth and death rates?
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Biotic potential, and environmental resistance
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What is the theoretical maximum increase in a population? (maximum birth rate and minimum death rate)
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Biotic potential
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What limits population growth due to environmental factors? (available resources, predators, parasites, natural disasters etc.)
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Environmental resistance
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What factors affect biotic potential?
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-Age at which the organism reproduces
-Frequency of reproduction -Average number of offspring produced each time -Length of reproductive life span -The death rate of individuals must remain less than the birth rate, total population size will continue to increase (may take longer) |
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What is the maximum population size that can be sustained by an ecosystem?
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Carrying capacity
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T or F: If the increase in population size is above the carrying capacity, growth will halt?
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True
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What two factors generate environmental resistance?
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-Density-dependent
-Density-independent |
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What is more efficient at limiting population size with an increase in population density?
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Density-dependent
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What limits population size regardless of the population density?
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Density-independent
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Density-dependent factors occur due to?
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-Predation
-Parasitism -Competition |
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What becomes important as prey populations grow (helps control prey population), predator populations often grow as prey becomes abundant, number of offspring produced is determined by the abundance of prey (little to no offspring in the absence of prey)?
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Predation
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What live inside a host feeding on it (harm or sometimes kill), most cannot travel long distances (spread better among dense populations), and influence population size by: weakening their host, and making them more susceptible to death from other causes?
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Parasitism
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What is competing for limited resources (food, water, nutrients, nesting sites, sunlight, etc.)?
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Competition
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Which form of competition is between individuals of the same species?
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Intraspecies competition
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Which form of competition is between individuals of different species?
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Interspecies competition
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Density-independent factors limit population size by?
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-Habitat destruction by human activities
-Use of pesticides -Natural disasters -(all limit population growth regardless of population density) |
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What are some types of community interactions?
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Competition, predation, parasitism, and mutualism
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Why are community interactions important?
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-Control population size (density-dependent control)
-Maintain resources in balance with population size -Act as agents of natural selection (coevolution) |
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What's each species unique habitat + role of the organism in that ecosystem?
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Ecological niche
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What is the increase overlap between the ecological niches of 2 species, increase the competition, and both competing species are harmed?
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Interspecies competition
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During interspecific competition adaptation reduces this competition, 2 species coevolve to occupy smaller niches than they would without competition, and allow individuals to grow and reproduce more efficiently (less competition), is an example of?
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Resource partitioning
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What is competition between members of the same species, more intense than interspecific competition, and limits amount of resources (selects for individuals who are better equipped to acquire the limited resource)?
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Intraspecies competition
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What is an interaction between predator and prey?
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Predation
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What are different types of predation?
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-Counteracting behaviors
-Camouflage -Bright colors -Mimicry -Chemical warfare |
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Bats use echolocation to locate their prey (emit short pulses of high pitched sound). Moths have evolved ears that are sensitive to the pitches used by bats and fly erratically when they hear a bat. As a result, bats changed the frequency of their sound pulses, is an ex of?
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Counteracting behavior
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What helps conceal both predator and prey, disguises that resemble their surroundings (leaves, tree bark, twigs), usually remain motionless (to hide from predator or ambush unsuspected prey). Ex. some plants resemble rocks to avoid predation?
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Camouflage
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What is used to warn off predators, and indicative of poisons, toxins, bad taste (ex. poison dart frog)?
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Bright colors
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What is how members of one species have evolved to resemble another species, two or more distasteful species may benefit from a shared warning coloration pattern, and predators only need one distasteful experience to learn to avoid all with that color pattern?
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Mimicry
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What refers to the toxins produced by spiders, scorpions, snakes, and beetles used to deter predators, and paralyze prey? (Ex. plants produce distasteful and toxic chemicals to deter herbivores, at least one insect feeds on every toxic plant to defend against their own predators)
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Chemical warfare
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Which interaction do parasites live inside a host (harm and sometimes kill the host), beneficial to keep its host alive, and generally smaller than the host (tapeworm, fleas, ticks, bacteria, viruses, protists), and act as agents of natural selection on one another?
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Parasitism
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What is where both interacting species benefit, many are long-term, symbiotic associations (lichen=fungi+photosynthetic algae/bacteria); fungi provide shelter, photosynthetic partner provides food?
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Mutualism
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1.) Bacteria in your intestines (bacteria have a comfortable place to live while synthesizing your vitamin K 2.) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live on the roots of legumes (soy, alfalfa); bacteria provide the plant with N, and get food in return, are example of?
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Mutualism
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What is a particular species that plays a major role in determining community structure; plays a major role regardless of its abundance, and holds the community together? (ex. overfishing of lobster resulted in an increase in the sea urchin population, sea urchin feed on algae, as a result the algal population was reduced)
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Keystone species
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What happens if you remove the keystone species from a community?
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-Normal community interactions are altered
-Changes the relative abundance of other species in the community |
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How do energy and nutrients move through ecosystems?
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1.) Nutrients constantly cycle & recycle within and among ecosystems (carbon, nitrogen, water, etc)
2.) Energy moves through ecosystems in a continuous one-way flow (many kinds of every: light, heat, chemical bonds; one-way= from sun to Earth, through an ecosystem and lost back to atmosphere as heat, and energy is not recycled: must be replenished by the sun) |
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How does energy flow through ecosystems?
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Sun converts hydrogen into helium (small amount of matter into enormous quantities of energy), a tiny fraction of this energy reaches Earth in the form of electromagnetic waves (heat, light, and ultraviolet (UV) energy
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What organisms make their own food using solar energy (photosynthesis); autotrophs?
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Producers
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What organisms cannot photosynthesize, and acquire energy and nutrients from molecules in the bodies of other organisms?
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Consumers
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What is the energy that producers store and make available to other members of the community over a period of time?
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Net primary production (NPP)
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What are the five different categories where energy is being passed through producers & consumers?
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Trophic levels
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Which level are producers (photosynthetic, autotrophic; get their energy from the sun)?
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1st trophic level
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Which level are primary consumers; herbivores that feed directly on producers (e.g. mice, zebra, grasshoppers, etc)?
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2nd trophic level
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Which level are secondary consumers; carnivores that eat herbivores (or primary consumers)?
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3rd trophic level
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Which level are tertiary consumers; carnivores that eat carnivores (or secondary consumers) (e.g. spiders, hawks, cheetah, and salmon are higher-level consumers)
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4th trophic level
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Which level are quaternary consumers; usually "apex" predators at the top of the food chain?
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5th trophic level
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What shows the actual feeding relationships in an ecosystem; includes many interconnecting food chains?
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Food web
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What live on dead organic matter; the bodies of other organisms, fallen leaves, fruit, and waste (ex. mites, earthworms, protist, worms, centipedes, some insects, snails, and vultures)?
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Detritus feeders
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What digest food on the outside of their bodies by secreting digestive enzymes; primarily consist in fungi and bacteria; absorb only needed nutrients, leaving the rest for other organisms?
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Decomposers
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What is the net energy transfer between trophic levels being roughly 10% efficient?
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10% law
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-Toxic chemicals become increasingly concentrated in the bodies of animals at higher & higher trophic levels
-Mercury taken up by producers can accumulate & become highly concentrated in carnivores such as swordfish -Dangerous in long-lived animals, such as humans, because toxic substances accumulate & build up over the lifespan, are all examples of? |
Biological magnification
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C02 and several greenhouse gases (methane) trap some of this heat in the atmosphere, what is this natural process called?
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Greenhouse effect
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What indicates that human activities have amplified the natural greenhouse effect? (as greenhouse gas levels rise, more heat is retained than is radiated back into space, causing the Earth to warm)
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Global warming
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What are 4 requirements for life?
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1. Nutrients to build tissue
2. Energy to conduct metabolic activities 3. Availability of liquid water for metabolic reactions to occur 4. Favorable temperatures to carry out all of these functions |
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Which biome has constant high temperatures and rainfall, has the highest biodiversity (total number of species within a region), has several layers of vegetation, most animals live in trees, soil does't have nutrients to support growth of consumers (all nutrients trapped in vegetation, and very intense competition for nutrients on the ground)
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Tropical rain forests
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What is the human impact on tropical rain forests?
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Agriculture can degrade soil quickly (nutrients eroded away by heavy rain), and trees cut for lumber and ranching (contribute to 25% of C02 released in the atmosphere; exacerbates global warming)
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Which biome is defined by their lack of water than by their temperatures (annual rainfall is 10 in. or less), found on every continent, widely spaced vegetation and large areas of bare ground?
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Deserts
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What is the human impact on deserts?
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Impact can last centuries due to slow-growing nature of desert plants, and have resulted in desertification
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What is the process by which relatively dry, drought-prone regions are converted to deserts by drought coupled with overuse of the land?
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Desertification
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Which biome has a continuous cover of grass and no trees expect along rivers, and is the most endangered ecosystem (only 1% remains)?
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Grassland (Prairie)
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What is the human impact on the grassland?
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Nearly all tall grass prairies have been plowed for agriculture, bison, prairie dogs, and bobcats endangered due to ranching and growing town boundaries
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Which biome is the largest terrestrial biome on Earth, conditions are very harsh (long, cold winters and short growing seasons), cone-berring trees are dominant, breeding ground for many North American birds, and includes many large mammals?
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Taiga
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What is the human impact on the taiga?
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Clear-cutting for paper making and construction
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Which biome is referred to as a freezing desert, permanently frozen layer of soil about 2 ft below the surface (permafrost), trees cannot survive, and when the soil thaws turns into a huge marsh?
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Tundra
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What is the human impact on the tundra?
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Very fragile, and localized around oil-drilling sites, pipelines, mines, and military bases
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Where is life restricted to the more shallow areas (too deep for plants to anchor, and the food chain dependent on microscopic plankton)?
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Open ocean
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What is the human impact on open oceans?
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-Pollution (dumping by ocean vessels, oil spills, and agricultural runoff)
-Overfishing has caused fish to be harvested in unsustainable numbers |
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What is the human impact on freshwater lakes?
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-Pollution carried into lakes from farms, feedlots, sewage, and suburban lawns disrupt community interactions
-Lake Erie once suffered sever pollution from phosphate -based detergents & farm runoff |
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Where is soil covered or saturated with water, many aquatic and some terrestrial plant species live there, and act as giant sponges, absorbing water and then gradually releasing it into rivers (safeguards against flooding/erosion, and filters water)?
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Wetlands
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What is the human impact on wetlands?
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-Drained and filled for agriculture, housing, and commercial uses (water more susceptible to pollutants, reduces wildlife habitats, and increase severity of floods)
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Where are complex formations that have accumulated over thousands of years, most abundant in tropical waters, and are referred to as the "ocean's rain forests"?
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Coral reefs
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What is the human impact on coral reefs?
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-Runoff from farming, agriculture, logging and construction carries silt, reducing sunlight and oxygen (harms photosynthetic organisms and hinders coral growth)
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