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46 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Theory of Plate Tectonics
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explains the origins and destruction of the earth's plates as wells as their lateral movement or drift
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Marine Geology Evidence
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-1950s Mid Ocean Ridges mark the location of seafloor spreading
-this confirmed that tectonics plates were, in some locations, moving apart |
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Geologic Evidence
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-mountains, ocean ridges, rocks with same strata (layers of deposition) in S. American and Africa
-this provided evidence of continents being contiguous in the past |
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Paleoclimate Evidence
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-Glacial deposits in the Southern Hemisphere
-Glacial till: the rocks left behind |
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Paleontological Evidence
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anomalies in the fossil record are resolved when viewed in the context of continental drift
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Paleomagnetism Evidence
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-when rocks form from magma, iron oxide particles become magnetized as the rock cools
-orientation of these "micro magnets" is influenced by the earth's magnetic field -Earth's magnetic field occasionally reverses direction, and these reversals are recorded in the rocks |
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Phylogenetic Taxonomy
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-methods of phylogenetics have been applied to biogeographical questions
-phylogenetic trees are transformed into area phylogenies by replacing taxa names with place where taxa live (or lived) |
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You look out your bedroom window to see that robins have begun nesting in the tree next to your
window. The young have just hatched and are naked and helpless. Given what you know about how the needs of young can influence the evolution of mating systems, what type of mating system do you think the adult birds have? A) monogamy B) polygyny C) polygamy D) promiscuous |
A) monogamy
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All of these are examples of how males may increase their
certainty of paternity in any offspring that their mate produces, EXCEPT: A. guarding their mates from other males B. mating repeatedly with their mates after their own absence C. mating with as many females as possible D. producing large volumes of sperm that can dilute rival male's sperm |
B) mating repeatedly with their mates after their own absence
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The genetic benefits received by an individual in
helping its relatives to raise their offspring is called: A. reciprocal altruism B. sexual selection C. imprinting D. inclusive fitness |
D) Inclusive fitness
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A brother is more likely to help a brother than he is
to help a cousin because: A. the is a greater probability that two brothers share a particular gene than a brother and his cousin B. brothers are raised to help one another C. the coefficient of relatedness is 0.125 for brothers and 0.5 for a brother and his first cousin D. the cost of helping a cousin is greater than helping a brother |
A) there is a greater probability that 2 brothers share a gene than a brother and his cousin
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Population
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a group of organisms of one species that interbreed (can produce fertile offspring) and live in the same place or at the same time
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Population boundaries
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may be natural
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Characteristics of populations
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-population size
-population dispersion -sex ratios: ratio -age structure -schedules of survival and reproduction: |
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Population Size
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-total number of individuals in the population
-measure it directly (census) or estimate it in small areas and extrapolate to the species entire range.. (density) X (area or volume occupied) -or estimate it using mark-recapture analysis -abundance is usually changing (is rarely static) -EX: coyote and beaver are increasing, eastern meadowlark is decreasing |
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Population density
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number of individuals per unit of area or volume
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Population dispersion
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-pattern of spacing among individuals
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Mark-recapture analysis
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1. capture some and mark all captured, then release
2. assume marked individual mixed with unmarked 3. come back and recapture 4. if population is small, the proportion of recaptures that are marked is high |
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Clumped distribution
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-individuals are in groups or patches
-reflects patchiness in resources (food, water) aggregation behavior |
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Uniform distribution
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-spacing among individuals is roughly constant
-reflects competition among individuals. eg, territoriality |
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random distribution
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-space between nearest neighbors varies randomly
-reflects homogeneity of resources and weak interactions |
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Populations are heterogeneous
individual differences include: |
-genetic variation: 2 sexes... usually. in most populations the sex ratio is 1:1
-different life stages: seed/seedling/plant embryo/larva/juvenile/adult -different sizes -they also have a size structure and a age structure |
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age structure can be represented in pyramids
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-population is divided into age classes
-pyramid illustrates the proportion of population in each class -a pop. growing rapidly will have many youngsters and will have a broad-based pyramid -a pop. growing slowly will have a flat sided pyramid -a pop. that is decreasing because of a low birth rate will have a pinched bottom |
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Life span varies among organisms
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-insects and other small invertebrates often < 1 year
-annual plants < 1 year -turtles >100 years -trees 1000s of years |
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mortality rate
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probability of dying per unit time
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survival rate
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probability of surviving per unit time
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death rate for age 0-1
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# of deaths during the year/ # of alive at start of year
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# alive at start of year 1
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# of alive at start of year minus # of deaths during year
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Percent alive at start of year 1
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number of alive at start of year (from 1-2) divided by the number of alive at start of year (from 0-1)
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survivorship is represented in plots
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-x axis is age and is in linear units
-y axis is always in logarithmic units (exponents of 10) -y axis range: nearly 0 to 1 (proportion) or 1 to 1000 (number) |
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Type 1 of survivorship curves
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-mortality rate increases later in life
-e.g. large mammals |
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Type 2 of survivorship curves
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-mortality rate is constant over life
-e.g. some livebearers, some birds and reptiles |
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Type 3 of survivorship curves
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-mortality rate is highest in young
-e.g. marine organisms with tiny dispersing larvae |
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Reproduction also displayed in schedules
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includes the age at first reproduction
e.g. most grounds squirrels begin to reproduce at year 1 -includes breeding frequency e.g. every year once mature -includes litter size |
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Human Impact
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-the size of the human pop. now contributes to most environmental problems
-human social organization and specialization has allowed us to increase the carrying capacity for humans |
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population growth is dependent on birth rate and mortality rate
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-there will be a # of births (B)
-there will be a # of deaths (D) -pop. growth in the time period is the difference between these two B and D |
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Exponential Growth
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delta N/ delta t=B-D
delta N: change in pop. size delta t: change in time -if there are more deaths than births the change in pop. size will be negative and vice versa |
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Exponential growth cont.
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-Birth rate (b) is the # of births per individual per time
-N is the # of individ. at the beginning of period B is # in time period : b=B/N |
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Example
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Over a year, there were 30 births (B) among 100 individ (N)
-the birth rate (b) is: 30/100 or 0.3 births per individ. |
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exponential growth with deaths
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-death rate (d) is the # of deaths per individ. per time
-N is the # of individ. at the beginning of period -D is the # deaths in time period : d=D/N |
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Example
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Over a year, there were 25 deaths (D) among 100 individ. (N)
-the death rate (d) is: 25/100 or 0.25 deaths per individ. |
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review
b: per capita birth rate d: per capita death rate B: absolute number of births D: absolute number of deaths N: number of individuals delta N: change in pop. size delta t: change in time |
b=B/N so B=bN
d=D/N soD=dN delta N/ delta t=B-D so delta N/delta t=bN-dN |
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review
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b=B/N---> 0.3= 30/100 so
B=bN---> 30 =(0.3)(100) Example: 30 births (B) among 100 individ (N). the birth rate (b) is: 30/100 or 0.3 births per individ. |
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death review
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d=D/N ----> 0.25=25/100 so
D=dN------> 25= (0.25)(100) Ex. 25 deaths (D) among 100 individ (N). the death rate (b) is 25/100 or 0.25 death per individ |
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review
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so
delta N/ delta t=B-D =30-25 or 5 ex. 30 births (B) among 100 individ (N). the birth rate (b) is: 30/100 or 0.3 births per individ ex. 25 deaths (D) among 100 individ. (N). the death rate (b) is 25/100 or 0.25 death per individ |
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review
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also:
delta N/delta t=bN-dN =(0.3)(100)-(0.25)(100) or 5 |
