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112 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Fungi
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Monophyletic group
Heterotrophic organisms with absorptive nutrition and with chitin in their cell walls Recyclers, Pathogens, Parasites, Plant Partners |
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Plant Partners: Fungi as mutualists
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o Almost all tracheophytes require a mutalistic association with fungi
o Benefit to plants Root hairs help absorb adequate water and minerals o Benefit to fungus Sugars and amino acid |
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Fungi Can also partner with photosynthesizes that are not plants (Example)
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Cyanobacteria, unicellular green algae
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Lichen
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Some lichens tolerate extreme environments
•First colonists on new areas of bare rock → form soil |
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Fungal anatomy
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Can be both unicellular and multi-cellular
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Mycelium
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Body of a multicellular fungus
Sometimes rearranged into a fruiting body |
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Hyphae
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Filaments of a mycelium
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Fungi Taxonomy (Mike chose zigzag, glowing displays (ask because…)? )
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Mike chose zigzag, glowing displays (ask because…)?
• Microsporidia • Chytrids • Zygomycota • Glomeromycota • Dikarya • Ascomycota • Basidiomycota |
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Microsporidia
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Unicellular fungi
Extremely small Intracellular parasites of animals |
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Chytrids
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o Only fungi with flagella
Have flagellated gametes o Aquatic microorganisms o Life Cycle Reproduce both sexually and asexually |
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Zygomycota
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Terrestrial, saprobes, parasites, and mutualists
Diploid cell entire life cycle No motile cells |
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Glomeromycota
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Terrestrial
Symbiotic with plants •Use glucose from plant host as primary energy source Only asexual reproduction |
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Dikarya
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Includes Ascomycota and Basidiomycota
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Ascomycota
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Sexual spores are in a sac
Produce sacs called asci during sexual reproduction Baker’s yeast, Morels, Truffles, Neurospora |
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Basidiomycota
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Sexual spores are on a pedestal
Spores known as basidiospores, produced on microscopic, club-like structures called basidia |
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Animals
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Multi-cellular heterotroph with internal digestion, undergoes developed from single cell, most can move, specialization of cells
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Animals
•Derived traits |
o Similar small subunit rRNA
o Similar Hox genes o Similar cell-cell junctions o Collagen and proteoglycan as extracellular matrix molecules |
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Differences in development are crucial for categorizing animals
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• How many layers does the embryo have? (Diploblasty vs. Triploblasty/ gastrulation forms the three layers and the blastopore )
• What forms first, mouth or anus? (Protosomes- mouth first/ Deutersomes- anus first) • Is the organism symmetrical? How? Most organisms are symmetrical •Bilateral: Gives organisms sides: anterior, posterior, dorsal, ventral •Does it have a brain (or a forerunner of a brain)? oCephalization • Does it have a body cavity? What type? o Fluid- filled space between ectoderm and endoderm o Grouped by body cavities •ACOELOMATE No enclosed body cavity •PSEUDOCOELOMATE Cavity lined with mesoderm NO mesoderm surrounding internal organs •COELOMATE Cavity lined with mesoderm Mesoderm also surrounds internal organs |
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Sponges
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• Resemble chanoflagellates
• Sponges feed via chanocytes, feeding cells that filter out small organisms and nutrients • Silicaceous spicules: Skeletal elements made from silicon |
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Placozoans are abundant but rarely observed
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Four cell types
Mature stage is asymmetrical, adheres to surfaces |
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Most animals are eumetazoans
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Symmetry, gut, nervous system, organs
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Ctenophores (comb jellies)
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o Radically symmetrical and diloblastic
o Comb-like rows of ctenes: Propel themselves through water o Have a complete gut |
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Cnidarians
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o Radially symmetrical and have two cell layers
o Have a blind gut with a single opening to the outside o Use cnidocyte cells to capture prey larger than themselves |
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Cnidarians Examples
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Anthozoans- sea anemones, coral
Scyphozoans- jellyfish Hydrozoans- man-of-war |
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Anthozoans (Cnidarians)
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lack medusa stage
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Hydrozoans (Cnidarians)
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predominately poly stage with colonial polyps
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Scyphozoans (Cnidarians)
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the jellyfish have a life cycle dominated by the medusa stage
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Protostome Animals
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Mouth forms fist
Ventral nervous system External skeleton (if any) |
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Deutrostomes
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Anus forms first
Dorsal nervous system Internal skeleton |
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Arrow worms (Protosomes)
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Didvided into tree compartments
Body is transparent Gas exchange and waste excretion occur by diffusion through the body wall |
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Lophotrochozoans
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Have similar DNA sequences
Circular or u-shaped ciliated structure •Surrounds mouth •For food collection and gas exchange •Usually in sessile stage of organism |
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Rotifers (protostomes/ Lophotrochozoans)
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Freshwater, small many ciliated protists, highly developed internal organs
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Ribbon worms (protostomes/ Lophotrochozoans)
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Long protrusible feeding organ
Capture prey with an eversible proboscis |
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Brachiopods (protostomes/ Lophotrochozoans)
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Use lophophores to extract food from water
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Phoronids (protostomes/ Lophotrochozoans)
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Small, sessile worms
U- shapped gut |
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Annelids (protostomes/ Lophotrochozoans)
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Segmented worms that livein marine, freshwater, and terrestrial environments
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Ecdysozoans (protostomes)
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Radically symmetrical
bryzoans are colonial colony is created asexually exoskeleton → molt cuticle- thin exoskeleton • exoskeleton without chitin |
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Arthropod
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Jointed foot, exoskeleton containing chitin
Hard exoskeleton, segmentation |
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Trilobites
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Ancestral arthropod
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Hexapods
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• Insects
Head, thorax, abdomen Wingless insects • look like little adults upon hatching. Hatchlings of many winged insects do not. • Two Body Regions Two arthropod lineages (Myriapods and Chelicerates) evolved a body plan with two regions, a head and a trunk. The phylum Myriapoda includes the centipedes and millipedes. Chelicerata, collectively referred to as the chelicerates. Their bodies are divided into two major regions The anterior region bears two pairs of appendages, modified to form mouthparts. Many chelicerates also have four pairs of walking legs. |
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Five factors that have contributed to this diversity:
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1. Segmentation: allowed evolution of rapid movement.
2. Complex life cycles: different stages specialize on different resources. 3. Diverse feeding structures: allow species to take advantage of many food sources. 4. Exoskeletons: evolved independently in many groups. Important for locomotion. 5. Better locomotion: allowed prey to escape more easily, but also predators to capture prey more easily. An evolutionary “arms race.” |
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Deutrostome Ancestors
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Yunnanozoans
• Large mouth, six pairs of external gills and a lightly cuticularized segmented posterior body section |
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Deutrostome: Include two clades
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o Pharynx
Muscular structure at front of digestive tract o Pharyngeal slits |
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Deutrostome: Echinoderms
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Internal calcified skeleton
Vascular system Pentaradial symmetry • Lava is bilaterally symmetrical and ciliated-Feeds for some time as a plantonic organism before transforming into adult with pentardial symmetry • Examples; starfish, brittle stars etc. Sea stars • Tube feet: Organs of locomotion, sited of gas exchange, circular and longitudinal mussels in the tube Brittle stars • Similar structures, flexible arms |
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Deutrostome: Hemichordates
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Acorn worms and pterobranchs
Characterized by three-part body plan |
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Acorn worms
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Their proboscis is a digging organ. It is coated with a sticky mucus that allows it to trap prey in the sediment.
This food-laden mucus is conveyed by cilia into the mouth. A pharynx is behind the mouth. It opens to the outside through a number of pharyngeal slits through which water can exit and gas exchange occurs. |
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Pterobranchs
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Sedentary animals that live in a tube secreted by the proboscis
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Chordates
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Common features of chordates
• Notochord, dorsal hallow nerve cord, post-anal tail |
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Cephalochordates (Chordates)
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Notochord is retained throughout life and is used in burrowing
Extract prey from water with pharyngeal basket |
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Urochordates = Tunicates = Sea Squirts (Chordates)
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Sea squirts are sessile as adults, filtering prey from seawater with pharyngeal baskets (enlarged pharynxs)
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Five features of Vertebrates
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Rigid internal skeleton with vertebral column as anchor
Two pairs of appendages attached to vertebral column Anterior skull with large brain Internal organs suspended in large coelom Circulatory system with ventral heart |
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Jawless fishes (Chordates)
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Hangfish, lamprey. No paired appendages
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Jawed fish (Chordates)
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Skeletal arches supporting the gills evolved into jaws
Coelacanths: Cartilaginous skeleton that is a derived feature Lungfish: Bridge to amphibians Both gills and lungs Lives in areas where water dries up |
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Amphibians (Chordates)
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Most amphibians live in water for part of their lives and their eggs must remain moist
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Organ Systems
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•Provide nutrients and remove wastes
•Provide energy •Provide defense •Ways to control and coordinate organ systems |
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Homeostasis
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•Maintenance of stable conditions in an internal environment
•Physiological systems are controlled by nervous and endocrine systems |
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Types of information necessary for physiological systems
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Set point
o Reference point Feedback information o What is happening in the system Error signal o Any difference between the set point and feedback information |
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Sensory information in regulatory systems
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Negative feedback
o Causes effectors to conteract the unfluence that creates an error signal Positive feedback o Amplifies response o Increases deviation from a set point Feed forward information o Anticipates internal changes and changes the set point |
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Regulatory systems
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Obtain, integrate and process information
Issue commands to controlled systems Contain sensors to provide feedback information that is compared to the set point |
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Physiological regulation
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Effectors/ controlled systems: Cells, tissues and organs that respond to commands from regulatory systems
Regulatory systems receive information as negative feedback which causes effectors to reduce or reverse a process |
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Four different Types of tissue
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Epithelial
Connective Muscle Nervous |
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Multicellular Animals supply the needs of their cells
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Stable internal environment of extracellular fluid make complex multicultural organisms possible:
o Extracellular fluid includes blood plasma and interstitial fluid that bathes each cell External functions—transport of nutrients and waste and maintenance of ion concentrations. Internal functions—circulation, energy storage, movement, and information processing. |
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Living cells tolerate only a narrow range of temperature
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Most physiological processes are temperature sensitive
Q10 is defined as the rate of a reaction at a particular temperature (RT) divided by the rate of that reaction at a temperature 10°C lower (RT-10). |
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Endotherms
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Regulated body temp. by generating metabolic heat and/or preventing heat loss
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Ectotherms
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Depend on external heat sources to maintain body temperature
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Heterotherm
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Fits animals that regulate body temperature at a constant level some of the time, such as hibernating mammals
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How animals alter their heat exchange with the environment
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Endotherm will increase metabolic rate
Endotherms and ectotherms may use behavior regulation |
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How endotherms produce heat ( Thermoregulation in Endotherms )
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• The metabolic rate of a resting animal within the thermoneutral zone is called the basal metabolic rate (BMR).
• The thermoneutral zone is bounded by a lower critical and upper critical temperature. • When environmental temperature falls below the lower critical temperature, mammals thermoregulate by generating heat (thermogenesis) through shivering and nonshivering heat production. • Most nonshivering heat production occurs in specialized adipose tissue called brown fat. • The tissue looks brown because of its abundant mitochondria and rich blood supply. • Brown fat cells have the protein thermogenin which uncouples proton movement from ATP production, so that no ATP is produced, but heat is released. • Brown fat is commonly found in newborn infants and animals that hibernate. |
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The Vertebrate Thermostat
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This regulator is at the bottom of the brain in a structure called the hypothalamus
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Hormones and their actions
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• Control and regulation require information.
• In multicellular animals, nerve impulses provide electric signals; hormones provide chemical signals. • Hormones are secreted by cells, diffuse into the extracellular fluid, and often are distributed by the circulatory system. • Hormones coordinate longer-term developmental processes such as reproductive cycles. • Hormones Can Activate a Variety of Signal Transduction Pathways |
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The Endocrine System of Humans
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Anterior Pituitary & Posterior Pituitary
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Anterior Pituitary
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• hGH
• ACTH • FSH • LH • TSH • Prolactin |
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Posterior Pituitary
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• Oxytocin
• ADH |
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hGH
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Growth of nearly all cells
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ACTH
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Stimulates adrenal cortex
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FSH
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Growth of follicles in females
Sperm production in males |
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LH
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Causes ovulation
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TSH
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Stimulates release of T3 and T4 in the thyroid
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Proclactin
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Promotes milk production
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Oxytocin
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Milk ejection and uterine contractions
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ADH
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Water absorption by kidney
Increase blood pressure |
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Anterior Pituitary
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Controlled by the hypothalamus
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Posterior Pituitary
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The Posterior Pituitary Releases Neurohormones
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Vertebrate Endocrine Systems
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• The function of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) is to increase water conservation by the kidney.
• If there is a high level of ADH secretion, the kidneys resorb water. • If there is a low level of ADH secretion, the kidneys release water in dilute urine. • ADH release by the posterior pituitary increases if blood pressure falls or blood becomes too salty. • ADH causes peripheral blood vessel constriction to help elevate blood pressure and is also called vasopressin. • The function of oxytocin is to stimulate uterine muscle contraction for the birth process. |
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Thyroid
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o Calcitonin, released by the thyroid gland, acts to lower calcium levels in the blood.
o Bone is constantly remodeled by absorption of old bone and production of new bone. o Osteoclasts break down bone and release calcium. o Osteoblasts use circulating calcium to build new bone. o Calcitonin decreases osteoclast activity and stimulates the osteoblasts to take up calcium for bone growth. |
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Parathyroid glands
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o Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
o Blood calcium decrease triggers release of parathyroid hormone (PTH), which in turn causes the osteoclasts to dissolve bone and release calcium. |
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• Adrenal Cortex
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o The adrenal glands are made up of the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla.
o The medulla produces epinephrine and norepinephrine. o The medulla develops from the nervous system and remains under its control. o The cortex is under hormonal control, mainly by adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary. o Adrenal cortex cells use cholesterol to produce three classes of steroid hormones called corticosteroids: • Glucocorticoids influence blood glucose concentrations and other aspects of fuel molecule metabolism. • Mineralocorticoids influence extracellular ionic balance. The main mineralocorticoid, aldosterone, stimulates the kidney to conserve sodium and excrete potassium. The main glucocorticoid, cortisol, mediates the body’s response to stress. • Sex steroids stimulate sexual development and reproductive activity. These are secreted in only minimal amounts by the adrenal cortex. |
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Adrenal Medulla
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Fight or Flight Response
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• Pancreas
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o Insulin is produced in the pancreas in cell clusters called islets of Langerhans.
o Several cell types have been identified in the islets: • Beta (b) cells produce and secrete insulin. • Alpha (a) cells produce and secrete glucagon (antagonist of insulin). • Delta (d) cells produce somatostatin. o The remainder of the pancreas acts as an exocrine gland with digestive functions. o Diabetes mellitus is a disease caused by a lack of the protein hormone insulin (Type I) or a lack of insulin receptors on target cells (Type II). • Insulin binds to receptors on the cell membrane and allows glucose uptake. • Without insulin or the receptors, glucose accumulates in the blood until it is lost in urine. |
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• Pineal Gland
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o Melatonin hormone is produced by the pineal gland, located between the cerebral hemispheres of the brain.
• Melatonin release occurs in the dark, marking the length of night. Exposure to light inhibits melatonin release. o Melatonin is involved in biological rhythms, including photoperiodicity. |
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Sex Hormones
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Estrogens
Progesterone Testosterone HCG |
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Ovaries
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Estrogens: Growth of mother sex organs: causes LH surge
Progesterone: Prepare and maintain uterus |
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Testes
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Testosterone: Sex characteristics
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Placenta
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HCG: Stimulates corpus luteum to grow and release estrogen and progesterone
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Adult vertebrates also have adaptations allowing life on land
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tough skin: with scales and other modifications to prevent drying.
excretory organs: allow excretion of concentrated urine; allows excretion of nitrogen wastes without losing a lot of water |
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Lepidosaurs
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skin covered with horny scales to reduce water loss
Squamates—lizards, snakes, and amphisbaenians Tuataras—resemble lizards; only two species survive |
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Crocodilians
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Modern crocodilians (crocodiles, caimans, gharials, and alligators) spend much of their time in water.
They build their nest on land or floating piles of vegetation. Heat from decaying organic matter warms the eggs. |
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Mammals
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Sweat glands
Mammary glands Hair Four-chambered heart |
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Prototheria
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The three mammal species in Prototheria lay eggs, but all other mammals give birth to developed young.
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Marsupials
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Young crawl into mother’s ventral pouch where they continue to develop
Most species are in Australia and South America (Mammals) |
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Eutherians
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(Mammals)
is a group of mammals consisting of placental mammals plus all extinct mammals that are more closely related to living placentals (such as humans) than to living marsupials (such as kangaroos). They are distinguished from noneutherians by various features of the feet, ankles, jaws and teeth. One of the major differences between placental and nonplacental eutherians is that placentals lack epipubic bones, which are present in all other fossil and living mammals (monotremes and marsupials). (WIKI) |
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Plant Pathogens
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Plants are resistant to > 95% of pathogens!!
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Constitutive or induced plant defenses
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Physical barriers to infection: Cell walls, bark the cuticle. Some pathogens secrete enzymes that break down cell walls.
One of the plant cell’s first induced responses is to deposit more polysaccharides on the cell wall. The polysaccharides block plasmodesmata (limits movement of viruses), and serve as a base for laying down lignin. Plants do not repair tissue damaged by pathogens; they contain the infection. |
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Elicitors
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chemicals that trigger plant defenses. They are fragments of plant cell walls broken down by pathogens, or molecules made by the pathogen.
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The hypersensitive response
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Phytoalexins are antibiotics produced by infected plants that are toxic to many fungi and bacteria- induced by infection
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pathogenesis-related proteins (PR proteins)
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Some are enzymes that break down pathogen cell walls, e.g., chitinase breaks down chitin.
Other PR proteins may be alarm signals to other cells. |
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Plant Damage Control
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Area of damage is sealed off from the rest of the plant.
Cells around the site undergo apoptosis, preventing spread of pathogens. The dead tissue, called a necrotic lesion, contains and isolates what is left of the infection. |
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Systemic acquired resistance
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General increase in resistance of whole plant to a wide range of pathogens. Can be long-lasting.
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Salicylic acid
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hormone
Infection in one part of a plant leads to export of salicylic acid to other parts of the plant, and PR proteins are made. Methyl salicylate, is volatile and travels in the air to nearby plants, where it triggers PR protein production. |
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Plant response to RNA viruses
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Plant enzymes convert virus RNA to double-stranded RNAs (dsRNA), and chop it into small pieces—small interfering RNAs (siRNA). (RNAi)
Immunity conferred by RNAi spreads quickly through the plant. |
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Secondary metabolites
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plants chemical defenses
Secondary metabolites are compounds not used for basic metabolism. Many are toxic to herbivores. Many secondary metabolites as pesticides and pharmaceuticals. |
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Jasmonates
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triggers many defenses, including synthesis of a protease inhibitor- a systemic response.
The inhibitor interferes with protein digestion. triggering formation of volatile compounds that attract insects to prey on the herbivores!! |
