Bio Exam 2

Front 1

Autotrophs

Back 1

organisms that make their own food/nutrients (plants)

Front 2

Heterotrophs

Back 2

organisms that have to take in food to get nutrients (animals/humans)

Front 3

The Wavelengths

Back 3

-Blue 420 nm and Red 660 nm are the best
-All colors are absorbed except green which is reflected

Front 4

Organ of Photosynthesis

Back 4

-Chloroplast
- Plants are green because chlorophyll is green and because green is reflected
-Thyakloid – Flattened sac within the granum whose membrane contains chlorophyll and where the light reactions of photosynthesis occur.

-Grana/Granum – Stack of chlorophyll containing thyakloids in a chloroplast.

-Stroma – Fluid within the chloroplast that contains enzymes involved in the synthesis of carbohydrates during photosynthesis.

- Stoma/Stomata – Small opening between two guard cells through which gas passes.


Mesophyll – Inner, thickets layer of a leaf consisting of palisade and spongy mesophyll; the site of most of photosynthesis.

Front 5

Accessory Pigments

Back 5

- These are compounds that help out in photosynthesis (chlorophyll b, c, and d,)
- In addition, there are many non-chlorophyll accessory pigments, such as carotenoids which also absorb light and transfer that light energy.

Front 6

MOST IMPORTANT PROCESS

Back 6

-Photosynthesis – she said it like over 9000 times.
-Sun light is needed
-Oxygen is produced

Front 7

Is oxidation or reduction occurring?

Back 7

-Both, the end product one is needed for the other (plants make oxygen – we make co2)

Front 8

Subpathways

Back 8

1. Light Reaction (Light Dependent Reaction)
-produces energy from solar power in the form of ATP and NADPH
-occurs in thyakloid membrane

2. Calvin Cycle (Light Independent Reaction)
-uses ATP and NADPH to make sugar/glucose

Front 9

How Many Photosystems?

Back 9

-There are two
-PSII or (P680)
-PSI or (P700)

Front 10

How Many Electron Pathways?

Back 10

1. Cyclic Electron flow
2.Noncyclic Electron flow (generates oxygen)

Front 11

CHEMIOMOSIS

Back 11

-powers ATP synthesis
-located in thyakloid membrane

Front 12

Calvin Cycle

Back 12

-occurs in stroma
- to produce glucose it takes 6 TURNS and uses 18 ATP and 12 NADPH

Front 13

Calvin Cycle (4 main parts)

Back 13

1. Carbon Fixation – CO2 is attached to RuBP

2. Reduction – NADPH reduces 3PGA to G3P with the assistance of ATP

3. Release of G3P – For every three CO2 molecules fixed, one G3P molecule leaves the cycle, the remaining five G3P are rearranged.

4. Regeneration of RuBP – Energy from ATP is used to regenerate three molecules of RuBP.

Front 14

C3 vs. C4. vs. CAM

Back 14

C3 Plants
-Majority of plants on earth (somewhere around 80%)

-use rubisco to make a three-carbon compound as the first stable product of carbon fixation.
-C3 plants flourish in cool, wet, and cloudy climates, where light levels may be low,
because the metabolic pathway is more energy efficient, and if water is plentiful, the stomata can stay open and let in more carbon dioxide.

-Carbon losses through photorespiration are high.

CAM Plants
- Hot dry environments
-5% of plants (cactus)
- stomates closed during the day and open at night
- light rx occurs during the day
- calvin cycle occurs when co2 is present

C4 Plants
- Hot moist environments
- 15% of plants on earth (grasses, corn, sugarcane)
- divides photosynthesis spatially
- light rxn – mesophyll cells

Front 15

What factors affect the rate of Photosynthesis

Back 15

light intensity – more light – more photosynthesis!!!!!!!!
- temperature – high temp and low temps slow photosynthesis. Weather must be optimal 80ish degrees.
- Co2 concentration – more Co2 = more photosynthesis
- water

Front 16

Photorespiration

Back 16

- Occurs on hot bright days
- Stomates close
- Fixation of o2 instead of Co2
- Produces @-C molecules instead of 3-C sugar molecules
- No sugar or ATP is produces

Front 17

Importance of Meiosis!!!

Back 17

* If it did not halve the chromosome number, the gametes would contain the same number of chromosomes, as the body cells, and the number of chromosomes would double with each new generation.
*The chromosome number stays constant in each new generation of individuals.
* The new individual is ensured a different combination of alleles than either parent because:
1. Crossing over can result in different alleles on the sister chromatids of a homologous pair of chromosomes.
2. Meiosis produces gametes that have all possible combinations of the haploid number of chromosomes.
3. At fertilization, a new combination of chromosomes can occur, and a zygote can have any one of a vast number of combinations of chromosomes

Front 18

Nondisjunction (meiosis)

Back 18

( meiosis can go awry because of this!!!) - Occurs during meiosis 1 when both members of a homologous pair go into the same daughter cell, or during meiosis II when the sister chromatids fail to separate and both daughter chromosomes go into the same gamete. (Condition that leads to abnormal number of chromosomes.)

Front 19

Spermatogenesis

Back 19

Occurs in the testes and is the production of sperm in males by the process of meiosis and maturation.

Front 20

Oogenesis

Back 20

Occurs in the ovaries and is the production of eggs in females by the process of meiosis and maturation.

Front 21

Crossing Over

Back 21

Exchange of segments between nonsister chromatids of a tetrad during meiosis. It also increases the variability of the gametes and the offspring.

Front 22

Variation

Back 22

Important to population as the raw material for natural selection

Front 23

3 Sexual sources of genetic variation

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1) Crossing over (prophase 1)
2) Independent assortment (metaphor 1)
3) Random fertilization

Front 24

Chromosomes

Back 24

Locus, autosomes, sex chromosomes

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Locus

Back 25

Specific location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome.

Front 26

autosomes

Back 26

any chromosome other than the sex determining pair

Front 27

Sex chromosomes

Back 27

Chromosomes that determine the sex of an individual; in humans, females have 2 X chromosomes, and males have an X and Y chromosome.

Front 28

Haploid (n)

Back 28

Half the number of diploids.

Front 29

Diploid (2n)

Back 29

Twenty-three pairs of chromosomes or 46 altogether.

Front 30

Fertilization

Back 30

fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote (fertilized egg.)

Front 31

Trisonomy (syndrome)

Back 31

an egg ends up with 24 chromosomes instead of 23 and is fertilized with a normal sperm.

Front 32

Monsomy (syndrome)

Back 32

an egg that has 22 chromosomes instead of 23 and is fertilized by a normal sperm.

Front 33

Down syndrome

Back 33

- (trisomy 21) an individual has 3 copies of chromosome 21.
- The egg contained 2 copies of this chromosome instead of one.)
- Characteristics: Short stature, eyelid fold.

Front 34

Turner syndrome

Back 34

XO) is a female. The O signifies the absence of a second sex chromosome.
Characteristics: Short, broad chest, webbed neck, ovaries, oviducts, and uterus are very small and underdeveloped. (NO PUBERTY)

Front 35

Klinefelter syndrome

Back 35

(XXY) is a male.
- Male has 2 or more X chromosomes in addition to a Y chromosome. Extra X chromosomes become Barr bodies.
- Testes and prostate gland are underdeveloped. No facial hair, but some breast development.

Front 36

Chromosome

Back 36

It is made up of a DNA – histone protein complex called chromatin.

Front 37

Chromatin

Back 37

a long, thin fiber that is folded and coiled to form chromosomes

Front 38

Homologous Chromosome

Back 38

it is chromosomes in a biological cell that pair during cell division during the creation of gametes (meiosis).

Front 39

Sister chromatids

Back 39

copy of chromosomes that is connected by a cetromere.

Front 40

Cell Cycle

Back 40

dividing & non-dividing stages in the life of cell.

Front 41

Phases of cell cycle

Back 41

a. Interphase -> growth & DNA replication
b. Prophase
c. Metaphase
d. Anaphase
e. Telophase

*b,c,d,e are mitotic division

Front 42

Interphase

Back 42

• Comprises about 90% of the cell cycle
• Cellular Growth: protein synthesis, metabolic activities, DNA synthesis
• Made up of 3 phases:
a. G1 (gap) phase: protein synthesis and metabolic activities and most cell are arrested in this phase.
b. S phase: DNA replication takes place
c. G2 (gap) phase: cellular growth and preparation for M (mitotic) phase

Front 43

Prophase

Back 43

• Early phase
• Nucleolus disassociates
• Chromatin material condenses into chromosomes, consisting of 2 sister chromatids.
• Centrioles move apart
• Spindle fibers form and attach from centrioles to centromeres.
• Nuclear envelope fragments and disassociates.

Front 44

Metaphase

Back 44

• Middle phase
• Centrioles are opposite ends of the cell and attached with aster fibers
• Chromosomes move to the metaphase plate (center of cell)

Front 45

Anaphase

Back 45

• Centromeres uncouple and spindle fibers shorten
• Sister chromatids separate and move apart
• After separation, chromatids are now considered chromosomes
• During this phase, cell contain twice the normal of chromosomes (very important)
• Cell begins to elongate
• At the end, there are equal numbers of chromosomes at the poles.

Front 46

telophase

Back 46

• Cleavage furrow develops in animal cells (cytokinesis begins)
• Cell plate develops in plants (no cleavage furrows)
• Nucleolus reappears
• Chromosomes uncoil
• In the end, two genetically identical nuclei(karyokinesis completed) are present

Front 47

Cytokinesis

Back 47

• Cytoplasm Division
• Cell plate complete in plants
• In the end, two separate daughter cells produced with single nucleus

Front 48

A cell containing 20 Chromosomes at the beginning of mitosis, would at its completion, produce cells containing how many chromosomes?

Back 48

20 Chromosomes

Front 49

A cell containing 40 Chromatids at the beginning of mitosis, would at its completion, produce cells containing how many chromosomes?

Back 49

20 Chromosomes

Front 50

P generation

Back 50

Parental generation.

Front 51

F1 generation

Back 51

Filial generation, the first-generation offspring

Front 52

F2 generation

Back 52

Second- generation offspring

Front 53

Monohybrid Cross

Back 53

-A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance of a single trait
-Mendel’s “Principle of segregation”
a. pairs of genes separate during gamete formation meiosis
b. the fusion of gametes at fertilization pairs genes once again.

Front 54

Dihybrid Cross

Back 54

-A breeding experiment that tracks the inheritance of two traits
-Mendel’s “Principle of independent assortment”
a. each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation metaphase I.
b. formula: 2n (n= # of heterozygote)

Front 55

Dominant

Back 55

Allele that exerts its phenotypic effect in the homozygote; it masks the expression of the recessive allele.
Example: RR (Homozygous dominant) Uppercase latter

Front 56

Reccesive

Back 56

Allele that exerts its phenotypic effect only in the homozygote; its expression is masked by a dominant allele.
Example: rr (Homozygous Recessive) Lowercase latter

Front 57

Genotype

Back 57

Arrangement of Genes That Produces the Phenotype.
Example: RR, rr, Rr

Front 58

Phenotype

Back 58

Outward appearance and physical characteristics.
Example: RR=Red color, rr=White color, Rr= Red color

Front 59

The law of segregation (1st law)

Back 59

-Each individual has two factors for each trait
-The factors segregate (separate) during the formation of the gametes.
-Each gamete contains only one factor from each pair of factors.
-Fertilization gives each new individual two factors for each trait.

Front 60

the law of independent assortment. (two trait crosses or dihybrid cross) (2nd law)

Back 60

-Each pair of factors segregates (assorts) independently of the other pairs.
-All possible combinations of factors can occur in the gametes.

Front 61

Test Cross

Back 61

a mating between an individual of unknown genotype and a

Front 62

Incomplete Dominance

Back 62

is exhibited when the heterozygote has an intermediate phenotype between that of either homozygote.
-F1 Hybrids have an appearance somewhat in between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties.
EX. RR=RED Rr= Pink rr=White

Front 63

Codominance Dominance

Back 63

- Inheritance pattern in which both alleles of a gene are equally expressed.
-Two alleles are expressed(Multiple alleles) in heterozygous individuals.

Front 64

Pleiotropy

Back 64

One gene many traits. This is leads to a syndrome.

Front 65

DNA

Back 65

made of nucleotide (DNA molecule) in DNA double helix. DOUBLE STRANDED!!!

Front 66

RNA

Back 66

made of nucleotides containing the sugar ribose, thus accounting for its name. SINGLE STRANDED!!!

Front 67

(messenger) mRNA

Back 67

produced in the nucleus. DNA serves as a template for its formation during transcription.

Front 68

(transfer) tRNA

Back 68

Type of RNA that transfers a particular amino acid to a ribosome during protein synthesis.

Front 69

DNA replication

Back 69

Synthesis of a new DNA double helix prior to mitosis and meiosis in eukaryotic cells and during prokaryotic fission in prokaryotic cells.

Front 70

DNA polymerose

Back 70

During replication, an enzyme that joins the nucleotides complementary to a DNA template.

Front 71

RNA polymerase

Back 71

During transcription, an enzyme that joins nucleotides complementary to a DNA template.

Front 72

Transcription

Back 72

The transfer of information in the nucleus from a DNA molecule to an RNA molecule.
Only 1 DNA strand serves as the template.
Starts at promoter DNA (called the TATA box)
Ends at the terminator DNA (stop)
When complete, pre RNA molecule is released.

Front 73

Translation

Back 73

Synthesis of proteins in the cytoplasm.

Front 74

initiation

Back 74

start codon (AUG) - During chain initiation at the start codon, the ribosomal subunits, the mRNA, and the tRNA methionine complex come together

Front 75

elongation

Back 75

tRNA at the P site passes its peptide to tRNA amino acid at the A site. The tRNA at the P site leaves. The ribosome moves forward one codon (called translocation) and the codon at the A site is ready for the next tRNA- amino acid.

Front 76

termination

Back 76

stop codon (UAG) - At a stop codon, the ribosome dissociates, the last tRNA departs, and the polypeptide is released.

Front 77

codon

Back 77

Every three bases in mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid into a protein.

Front 78

anticodon

Back 78

Three base sequence in a tRNA molecule base that pairs with a complementary codon to mRNA.

Front 79

DNA, and muatations

Back 79

A gene mutation is a change in the sequence of bases. Mutations can be due to errors in replication, transposons, or environmental mutagens. The results of mutations can vary from no effect to a nonfunctional protein.

Front 80

DNA fingerprinting

Back 80

Makes use of noncoding sections of DNA that consist of 2 to 5 bases repeated over and over again. ATCATCATCATC.
Can identify the presence of a viral infection, or a mutated gene that could predispose someone to cancer..
Forensic: fingerprinting from a single sperm is enough to identify a suspected rapist because the DNA is amplified by PCR.

Front 81

Gene Therapy

Back 81

correction of a detrimental mutation by the addiction of new DNA and its insertion in a genome.

Front 82

DNA polymerase

Back 82

(enzyme that carries out DNA replication), a set of primers, and a supply of nucleotides.

Front 83

PCR (Polymerase chain reaction)

Back 83

can create millions of copies of a segment of DNA very quickly in a test tube without the use of a vector or a host cell.

Front 84

What is a karyotype?

Back 84

When chromosomes are arranged by pairs according to their size, shape, and general appearance in mitotic metaphase.

Front 85

What is amniocentesis?

Back 85

• Procedure for removing amniotic fluid surrounding the developing fetus for testing of the fluid or cells within the fluid.
• Usually performed at about 14 to 17th week of pregnancy.
• Long needle is passed through abdominal and uterine walls to withdraw a mall amount of fluid, which contains fetal cells.

Front 86

Gene Therapy

Back 86

correction of a detrimental mutation by the addiction of new DNA and its insertion in a genome.

Front 87

DNA polymerase

Back 87

(enzyme that carries out DNA replication), a set of primers, and a supply of nucleotides.

Front 88

PCR (Polymerase chain reaction)

Back 88

can create millions of copies of a segment of DNA very quickly in a test tube without the use of a vector or a host cell.

Front 89

What is a karyotype?

Back 89

When chromosomes are arranged by pairs according to their size, shape, and general appearance in mitotic metaphase.

Front 90

What is amniocentesis?

Back 90

• Procedure for removing amniotic fluid surrounding the developing fetus for testing of the fluid or cells within the fluid.
• Usually performed at about 14 to 17th week of pregnancy.
• Long needle is passed through abdominal and uterine walls to withdraw a mall amount of fluid, which contains fetal cells.

Front 91

What is a pedigree?

Back 91

• Chart showing the relationships of relatives and which ones have a particular trait.
1. Pedigree for autosomal disorders: recessive or dominant.
2. Pedigree for sex-linked disorders: recessive or dominant.

Front 92

What are genetic disorders?

Back 92

• Autosomal disorders
1. Tay-Sachs disease (a lysosomal storage disease)
2. Cystic-Fibrosis (faulty regulator of chloride channel)
3. Phenylketonuria (inability to metabolize phemylalanine)
4. Sickle Cell Disease (sickle shaped red blood cells)
5. Marfan Syndrome (defective elastic connective tissue)
6. Huntington disease (abnormal huntingin protein)

Front 93

Incomplete Dominance Disorder

Back 93

1. Familial hypercholesterol emia (liver cells lack cholesterol receptors)

Front 94

X-Linked Disorders

Back 94

1. Duchenne muscular dystrophy (muscle weakness)
2. Hemophilia (inability of blood to clot)

Front 95

What is gene therapy?

Back 95

• Correction of a detrimental mutation by the addition of a new DNA and its insertion in a genome.
1. Ex-Vivo Therapy: cells are removed from the patient, treated, and returned to the patient. (Outside the body)
2. In-Vivo Therapy: a foreign gene is given directly to the patient. (Inside the body)