Bio Exam 2

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convergent evolution

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A process of natural selection in which features of organisms not closely related come to resemble each other as consequences of similar selective forces; many marsupial and placental species resemble each other as a result of convergent evolution.

bat and grass hoper and bat- each have wings, no common ancestor

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Domain and Kingdoms - relationships among them

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In modern classification, the highest level of the hierarchy; there are three domains, bacteria, archaea, eurkarya.

Kingdom- sub-categories of domains

Eurkarya- fungi, protists, plants, and animals.

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Bacterial Characteristics

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single-celled organisms with no nucleus or organelles
One or more circular molecules of DNA
several methods of exchanging genetic information
Asexual organisms
Diverse metabolism




Bacterial growth and reproduction is fast and efficient.

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Archaean Characteristics

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exactly the same bacteria, except they have membrane and bacteria don't .
Have ribosomes, bacteria don't

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Protista characteristics

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Eukaryotic
Most single-celled, some colonial
Colonial vs. Multi cell: multi sell organisms can’t have individual cells live on their own (if separated from the whole they cannot survive) in colonial you have advocates of cells working together but if you separate a cell out on its own it can survive
Autotrophic or heterotrophic, sometimes both.
Autotrophic means they photosynthesize
Heterotrophic means they eat other organisms
IT CAN BE BOTH
Some cause disease
Food chain
Some decomposers - organisms that are heterotrophic but they are dead organisms that break down and free up organisms to go back into eco systems
Most aquatic
Reproduce sexually or asexually

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Endospores

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a resistant asexual spore that develops inside some bacteria cells.

the inner layer of the membrane or wall of some spores and pollen grains.

a protective layer that ensures survival during environmental stress.

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Innate Behavior vs Learned behavior

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Innate behavior performed without prior knowledge or experiences

Learned behavior is behavior modified by experience

innate hardly varies among species and learned behavior varies greatly among species

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background extinctions

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extinctions that occur at lower rates than at times of mass extinction; backgrounds occur mostly as the result of aspects of the biology and competitive success of the species, rather than catastrophe

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mass extinction

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large numbers of species become extinct in a short period of time, usually because extraordinary and sudden environmental change

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Causes of mass extinctions

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sea level changes
tectonic plate movement
massive volcanic eruptions
astroid impacts
changes in ocean or atmosphere
GLOBAL CHANGES

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causes of extinctions

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global warming, people in general

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Species

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Natural populations of organisms that can interbreed and are reproductively isolated from other such groups.

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Bacterial reproduction

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Asexual reproduction
fast and efficient
Binary fission

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Vestigial Structures

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structures, once useful to organisms but which has lost its function over evolutionary time; examples include the human appendix and molars in bats that now consume an exclusively liquid diet

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Embryology

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each organism shares a common ancestor from which all have been modified.

For example: all species have gills and bony tails as embryos, but humans lose both of those before birth.

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Antibiotic resistance

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happens when an antibiotic isn't taken for its full course. the remaining bacteria inside the body form a resistance to antibiotic. They found a new population which will be resistant to that antibiotic the next time around.

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Fossil-distribution

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What can their distribution tell us?
are species now related to species then
What were their behaviors
Where were they located
What was the habitat
Proposed temperatures
When it lived
Oldest fossils deeper

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Success of bacteria

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in abundance, growth and reproduction is fast and efficient. adaptive, they can live almost everywhere. Diverse metabolism. distribution (endospores) and resourcefulness

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Evolution

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A change in allele frequencies of a population

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Natural Selection: Disruptive

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selection that, for a given trait, increases fitness at both extremes of the phenotype distribution and reduces fitness at middle values.

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natural selection: directional

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selection that, for a given trait, increases fitness at one extreme of the phenotype and reduces fitness at the other, leading to an increase or decrease in the mean value of the trait.

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natural selection: stabilizing

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selection that, for a given trait, produces the greatest fitness at the intermediate point of the phenotypic range.

"bigger babies are becoming more common."
Babies with low birthweight are more vulnerable to complications and big babies are more vulnerable so the median size is selected.

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natural selection: sexual

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the process by which natural selection favors traits, such as ornaments or fighting behavior, that give an advantage to individuals of one sex in attracting mating partners.

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natural selection: artificial

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selecting who breed- people are choosing what to breed. golden-doodle

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classification

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placing species in like organisms and giving them names

why would they change?
They would change if there was a new discovery of a species

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bioremediation

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using biological organisms to clean up the environment, clean up toxins etc.

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evolutionary tree analysis

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fish-->bird-->human-->rat-->mouse

fish is common ancestor of mice, rats, humans and birds and fish

birds are common ancestor to mice, rats, humans, and birds

human are common ancestors of mice rats and humans

rats are common ancestors of mice and rats

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Eukaryotic

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An organism with a membrane-bound nucleus containing DNA, membrane-bound organelles, and internal structures organized into compartments

Eurkarya- fungi, protists, plants and animals

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Prokaryotic

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an organism consisting of a prokaryotic cell (single-celled)

a cell bound by a plasma membrane enclosing the cell's contents such as cytoplasm and DNA. NO nucleus or organelles. ANY BACTERIA IS PROKARYOTIC -- so are archaeans

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Heterotrophic

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get energy from other living organisms
eating things that decaying ie, fungi.

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autotrophic

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make its own food like photosynthetic organisms

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functions of bacteria in the environment

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normal flora- helps you fight off disease

probiotic- treating infections by introducing a large enough number of good bacteria to swarm and get rid of bad bacteria

bioprospecting- people looking for medicines

decomposers, recycles nutrients

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which organism group group did photosynthesis first occur in?

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Bacteria (they created the oxygen environment that allowed for all these organisms to be)

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origin of eukaryotic cells

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the first eukaryotes were protists
- membrane folding: fold membrane-protects DNA
Endosymbiont hypothesis- one living inside, two organisms living closely together over a long period of time.

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Unicellular

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doesn't work with anything else but itself. Functions on its own

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Multi-cellular

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Cells can't have individual cells live on their own

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Colonialism

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Can separate from the whole and survive.

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mechanical isolation

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certain parts don't fit together PRE-mating like right handed left handed snail

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temporal isolation

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timing of reproduction is different

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geographic isolation

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a river comes in and changes course and splits population into two--they can’t cross over the river, therefore there is not gene flow

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behavioral isolation

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what habitat do they want to be in? Behavior courtships that differ -- often times the courtships differ which in turn keep the species separate.

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ecological isolation

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you can isolate two species just because of where they prefer to live

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Speciation

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the process by which one species splits into two distinct species; the first phase of speciation is reproductive isolation, the second is genetic divergence, in which two populations evolve over time as separate entities with physical and behavioral differences.

formation of a new species

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gametic incompatibility

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the gametes can’t fertilize one another. Egg and sperm can’t form a zygote. May be structural (sperm has to swim farther than it can handle), some can be enzyme incompatibility.
NO GENE FLOW - POST MATING

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hybrid inviability

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he hybrid dies and can’t survive. It could never come to term in the pregnancy, or it could be born and die, or it just might have an unhealthy life.

NO GENE FLOW- POST MATING

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Infertility

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evolutionary dead end.
EXAMPLE a mule can't reproduce

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genetic drift

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a random change in allele frequencies over successive generation. CLASS example! plane crash.

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bottleneck effect

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a change in allele frequencies of a population caused by a sudden reduction in population size (often due to famine, disease, or rapid environmental disturbance.)

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Founder effect

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change in the allele frequencies of a population resulting from the isolation of a small subgroup of a larger population; all the descendants of the smaller group will reflect the allele frequencies of the subgroup. which may be different from those of the larger source population; one cause of genetic drift-- an individual from big population moves to small population (small portion of the population migrated)

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Gene flow-

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genes moving from one population to another- a change in the allele frequencies of a population due to the movement of some individuals of a species from one population to another, changing the allele frequencies of the population they join; also known as migration

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types of communications

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Visual
Sound
Chemical

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Advantages/disadvantages of visual communication

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advantages  - Have different kind of communications, mates, w/o attracting predators, one on one, warning coloration, active or passive

disadvantages- Limited distance, can’t use in the dark or in dense shrubbery

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advantages/disadvantages of sound communication

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advantages -Happens quickly, longer distances, instantaneous, used in dark, variation

disadvantages- Predators can hear you,

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advantages/disadvantages of chemical communication

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advantages-Long distances, little energy used, not detected by other species, persists over time even after animal is gone

disadvantages- little variation

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Animals which form social groups

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unusual invertebrates - larger animals
(lions)
Insects also form social groups

Naked mole rat: there is a queen that dominates the colony, smaller individuals are workers, everyone has their own job etc., the larger defend the colony.

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Advantages of social groups

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increased ability to detect and confuse predators.
Increase hunting or scavenging efficiency
Division of labor
Increased ability to find a mate

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Disadvantages of social groups

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increased ability to be found by predators.
increased competition
increased risk of contagious diseases
increased risk of death of offspring by group number

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Mutations

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an alteration in the base-pair sequence of an individual's DNA; may arise spontaneously or following exposure to a mutagen

Significance mutations in terms of evolution:
Can create a new allele which is a different version of the gene
source of variation which is basis of evolution

Vital role in the generation of variations

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Adaptations

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the process by which, as a result of natural selection, organisms become better matched to their environment; also, a specific feature, such as the quills of a porcupine, that makes an organism more fit

-- making a change that will help you survive in the environment

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Genetic Variation

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variation in alleles of genes, occurs both within and among populations. Genetic variation is important because it provides the “raw material” for natural selection

genetic drift - its impact on genetic variation is that it reduces the population

IT INCREASES the population for migration

For natural selection you have to have variation

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Dominance hierarchy (**social groups)

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common in big groups
first in command and second in command etc.
How will this reduce aggression?
it will establish who is in command.

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Territoriality

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What type of resources will they defend?
- Water, food, land

Who defends?
-male often defends and establishes the territory but depends on the mating system

How?
- sometimes they may fight, might be calling, using pheromones to establish your boundary. Depends not the species

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Ritualized combat

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designed to reduce everyday fighting within species
Why not actually fight?
- idea isn’t diminish species through competition it is just to figure it out on a daily basis

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Overspecialization

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characteristics of species at risk of extinction

for example: blue butterfly- a one food species, has a very specific habitat, limits itself so much that it is at risk.

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Coevolution

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the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution.

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Competition

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Between same or different species
What do individuals compete over?
food, territory, mates, space, water, mess sites
Typically more intense with individuals of your own species, because you are eating the same things, wanting to live in the same places, and searching for the same kind of mates.

What impact does competition have on population size?
Keep it stable or decrease it. Keeps it in check. Survival of the fittest


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Fitness

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a relative measure of the reproductive output of an individual with a given phenotype compared with the reproductive output of individuals with alternative phenotype.

-high fitness means better adapted and better chance at surviving

what does fitness depend on?
relationship to other geno/phenotypes in the population
-reproductive success compared to other organisms in the population
- the environment

survival of the fittest- you have to be able to survive AND reproduce.