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440 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Matter
Anything that has mass or takes up space
atomic weight
the weight of the protons plus the neutrons
polar covalent bond
a bond where one atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom , meaning the electrons are not shared equally between atoms
isotope
an atom that has a differing number of neutrons with the same number of protons as the original element
ion
a atom with a non 0 charge
radioactive isotope
an isotope that emits radiation
chemical bond
two atoms that are bonded together because they either share electrons or one takes them from the other
cation
positively charged ion
atom
smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element
neutron
An electrically neutral particle (a particle having no electrical charge), found in the nucleus of an atom.
potential energy
energy from chemical bonds or position
molecule
structure formed from two or more atoms combining in bonds
ionic bond
bond in which one atom takes electrons from another , bonding the two together
proton
the positive charge in the nucleus
energy level
Any of several different states of potential energy for electrons in an atom
structural formula
the notation in which a bond is signified by a dash, example: H-H
hydrogen bond
the bond formed when a hydrogen atom covalently bonds with one electronegative atom, and then these two atoms are covalently bonded to yet another electronegative atom… water.
electron
A subatomic particle with a single negative charge. One or more electrons move around the nucleus of an atom
molecular formula
A type of molecular notation indicating only the quantity of the constituent atoms; ex: 2H
chemical reactions
happens between two particles that are attracted or repelled from each other
double covalent bond
a bond where an atom shares two pairs of elections with another atom
reactants
substances that are in place before the reaction takes place
dalton
A measure of mass for atoms and subatomic particles
electron shell
the general location around the atom that the electrons can be found in varying on their energy
electronegativity
the attraction of a particular kind of atom for the electrons of a covalent bond
chemical equilibrium
state where the reactants are equal to the products
orbital
notated as s p or d, the orbital's describe how many atoms are in the valence shell of the atom
polar molecule
a molecule (such as water) with opposite charges on opposite sides
celsius scale
A temperature scale (°C) equal to 5/9 (°F - 32) that measures the freezing point of water at 0°C and the boiling point of water at 100°C
solute
a substance that is dissolved in a solution (sugar would be the solute in a solution of sugar and water).
hydrogen ion
A single proton with a charge of +1
cohesion
The binding together of like molecules, often by hydrogen bonds
calorie
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree Celsius; also the amount of heat energy that 1 gram of water releases when it cools by 1 degree Celsius
solvent
dissolving agent of a solution
molarity
A common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute per liter of solution
adhesion
the attraction between different kinds of molecules
kilocalorie
A thousand calories; the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1 degree Celsius
aqueous solution
A solution in which the solvent is water
hydroxide ion
A water molecule that has lost a proton; OH-
surface tension
A measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid. Water has a high surface tension because of the hydrogen bonding of surface molecules
hydrophilic
having an affinity for water
acid
A substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; 0-7 on a pH scale
kinetic energy
The energy of motion, which is directly related to the speed of that motion. Moving matter does work by imparting motion to other matter
specific heat
The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 gram of a substance to change its temperature by 1 degree Celsius
hydrophobic
having an aversion (disliking) to water; tending to coalesce and form droplets in water
base
a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution; 7-14 on a pH scale
heat
the a. The total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter. Heat is energy in its most random form.
evaporative cooling
the property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state
mole
number of grams of a substance that equals its molecular weight ub Daltons and contains Avogadro’s number of molecules
pH Scale
measure of hydrogen ion concentration equal to –log [H+] and ranging in value from 0-14
temperature
measure of the intensity of heat in degrees, reflecting the average kinetic energy of the molecules
solution
liquid that is a homogenous mixture of two or more substances
molecular weight/mass
sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule
buffer
substance that consists of acid and base forms in a solution and that minimizes changes in the pH when extraneous acids or bases are added to the solution
precipitation
product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor
organic chemistry
study of carbon compounds
enantiomer
molecules that are mirror images of each other
hydrocarbon
organic molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen
functional group
the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions
isomer
compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same elements but different structures and hence different properties
structural isomer
differ in the covalent arrangements of their atoms
geometric isomer
have the same covalent partnerships, but they differ in their spatial arrangements
hydroxl group
(Structure) consists of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom by a polar covalent bond/ (Compounds) alcohol/ (properties) polar as a result of the electronegative oxygen atom drawing electrons toward itself
carbonyl group
(Structure) consists of carbon atom joined to an oxygen atom by a double bond/ (Compounds) aldehydes & ketones
aldehyde
carbonyl group; when the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton
ketone
carbonyl group; if the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton – name of a compound of a carbonyl group
carboxyl group
Structure) when an oxygen atom is double-bonded to a carbon atom that is also bonded to a hydroxyl group; (compounds) Carboxylic acids or organic acids; (properties) has acidic properties because it is a source of hydrogen ions
amino group
Structure) consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and to the carbon skeleton; (compound) amine; (properties) acts as a base
sulfhydrl group
Structure) consists of a sulfur atom bonded to an atom of hydrogen; resembles a hydroxyl group in shape; (Compound) thiols; (Properties) two sulfhydryl groups can interact to help stabilize protein structure
phosphate group
(Structure) a phosphorus atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms: one oxygen is w/ double bond, one oxygen is bonded to the carbon Skelton; two oxygens carry negative charges. The phosphate group is an ionized form of a phosphoric acid group; (Compound) organic phosphates; (Properties) can transfer energy between organic molecules
polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together
cellulose
A structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by β–1,4–glycosidic linkages
polypepetide
a polymer of amino acids linked by peptide bonds (PROTEIN)
quaternary structure
when a protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains
monomer
The subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer
chitin
A structural polysaccharide of an amino sugar found in many fungi and in the exoskeletons of all arthropods
amino acid
An organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups. Amino acids serve as the monomers of proteins
denaturation
In proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive. Denaturation occurs under extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature
condensation reaction
A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a water molecule
dehydration reaction
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule
lipid
one of a family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble in water
protein
A three–dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids
fat
A biological compound consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule
conformation
A protein’s conformation determines how it works
hydrolysis
A chemical process that lyses, or splits, molecules by the addition of water.
fatty acid
A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat
peptide bond
The covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction-PROTEIN
nucleic acid
A polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities. The two types are DNA and RNA
carbohydrate
A sugar (monosaccharide) or one of its dimers (disaccha–rides) or polymers (polysaccharides)
primary structure
the level of protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
a double-stranded, helical nuclei acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell’s proteins
monosaccharide
the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer of disaccharides and polysaccharides. Also known as simple sugars
saturated fatty acid
a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton
secondary structure
the localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between peptide linkages
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
a type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases, usually single-stranded, functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses
disaccharide
a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis
unsaturated fatty acid
a fatty acid possessing one of more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail. Such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton
alpha helix
a spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure
nucleotide
the building block of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group
glycosidic linkages
a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
steroid
a type of lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four rings with various functional groups attached
beta pleated sheet
beta pleated sheets are the second form of regular secondary structures in proteins
pyrimidine
one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides; C, T, U
polysaccharide
a polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions
cholesterol
a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids
tertiary structure
irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges
purine
One of two types of nitrogenous bonds found in nucleotides; have two organic rings; Adenine and guanine are purines
starch
a storage polysaccharide in plants consisting entirely of glucose
ribose
the sugar component of RNA
glycogen
an extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch
disulfide bridges
a strong covalent bond formed when the sulfur of one cysteine monomer bonds to the sulfur of another cysteine monomer in proteins
polynucleotide
a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities
double helix
the form of native DNA, referring to its two adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape
metabolism
the totality of an organism's chemical reactions, consisting of catabolic and anabolic pathways
first law of thermodynamics
principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed
catalyst
chemical agent that changes the rate of a reaction without being consumed by the reaction
noncompetitive inhibitors
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the substrate.
catabolic pathways
A metabolic pathway that releases energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds
second law of thermodynamics
The principle whereby every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Ordered forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat, and in spontaneous reactions, the free energy of the system also decreases
activation energy
The amount of energy that reactants must absorb before a chemical reaction will start; also called activation energy
allosteric site
site on enzyme other than active site where inhibitory molecules may bind to an enzyme
anabolic pathway
A metabolic pathway that synthesizes a complex molecule from simpler compounds.
free energy
The portion of a system’s energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system. The change in free energy of a system is calculated by the equation ΔG = ΔH - T Δs, where T is absolute temperature
substrate
The reactant on which an enzyme works
feedback inhibition
A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway
exergonic reaction
A spontaneous chemical reaction, in which there is a net release of free energy
active site
The specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak chemical bonds
endergonic reaction
A non-spontaneous chemical reaction, in which free energy is absorbed from the surroundings
induced fit
The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly to the substrate, induced by entry of the substrate
entropy
A quantitative measure of disorder or randomness, symbolized by S
kinetic energy
The energy of motion, which is directly related to the speed of that motion. Moving matter does work by imparting motion to other matter
cofactors
Any inorganic non-protein molecule or ion that is required for the proper functioning of an enzyme. Cofactors can be permanently bound to the active site or may bind loosely with the substrate during catalysis; ex: minerals
ATP
An adenine-containing nucleoside triphosphate that releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This energy is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells
coenzyme
An organic molecule serving as a cofactor. Most vitamins function as coenzymes in important metabolic reactions
phosphorylated
Referring to a molecule that has been the recipient of a phosphate group
competitive inhibitors
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it mimics
endomembrane system
Synthesis of proteins, transport, metabolism, movement of lipids, and detoxification of poisons (Nuclear Envelope, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi Apparatus, Lysosomes, Vacuoles, Plasma Membrane)
nuclear envelope
a double membrane that encloses the nucleus
endoplasmic reticulum
An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions
lysosomes
A membrane-enclosed sac of hydrolytic enzymes found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
Golgi Apparatus
An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum
vacuoles
carry out hydrolysis; food vacuole: fuse w/ lysosome to digest food; contractile vacuole: pump excess water out of cell; central vacuole "tonoplast": in plant cells, reserves important organic compounds, cell’s main repository of inorganic ions, disposal sires for metabolic by-products, pigment, protection, growth of plant
plasma membrane
Functions as a selective barrier; passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste; encloses the cell
nucleus
the cell’s control center that contains most genes
nucleolus
a nonmembranous organelle that synthesizes rRNA and ribosomes
Ribosomes
nonmembranous organelles that make proteins. Contain ribosomal RNA and protein. Free ribosomes are found in the cytosol. Bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the ER
mitochondria
semi-autonomous organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell, sites of cellular respiration, create ATP. Their membrane proteins are made by free ribosomes. It is enclosed by two membranes that are both phosolipids bilayers with proteins.
i. Intermembrane space: narrow region between inner and outer membranes
ii. Mitochondrial matrix: contains enzymes, mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes
Peroxisome
an oxidative organelle that imports proteins. It has a single membrane and contains enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing H2O2. Some use oxygen to break down fatty acids into smaller molecules that can be transported to mitochondria and used as fuel for cellular respiration
glyoxysomes
specialized perioxisomes found in fat-storing tissues of plants seeds that contain enzymes that initiate the conversion of fatty acids into sugar
microvilli
long, thin projections that increase surface area
cytoskeleton
a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. Support, motility, and regulation. Organizes the structures and activities of the cell. Motor proteins
intermediate Filaments
fibrous proteins supercoiled into thicker cables, bears tension. Functions to maintain cell shape, anchorage of nucleus and other organelles, forms nuclear lamina, framework of enite cytoskeleton. Keratin- skin, hair, nails
microtubules
hollow rods constructed from a globular protein, tubulin. Shape and support the cell and act as tracks for the movement of organelles equipped with motor proteins. Responsible for the separation of chromosomes during cell division
centrosome
“microtubules-organizing center.” compression-resisting girders of the cytoskeleton
cilia and flagella
locomotor appendages that protrude from some cells, with a core of microtubules sheathed in an extension of the plasma membrane “nine doublets” “9+2”, basal body: anchorage, dynein: motor protein
Selective permeability
a property of biological membranes that allows some substances to cross more easily than others.
Hypotonic
in comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a lower solute concentration
amphipathic
A molecule that has both a hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region
fluid mosaic model
The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids
integral proteins
Typically a transmembrane protein with hydrophobic regions that completely spans the hydrophobic interior of the membrane
peripheral proteins
a protein appendage loosely bound to the surface of a membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer
transport proteins
A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane
diffusion
The spontaneous tendency of a substance to move down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated to a less concentrated area
concentration gradient
an increase or decrease in the density of a chemical substance in an area. Cells often maintain concentration gradients of ions across their membranes. When a gradient exists, the ions or other chemical substances involved tend to move from where they are more concentrated to where they are less concentrated
passive transport
The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane
endocytosis
The cellular intake of macromolecules and particulate substances by localized regions of the plasma membrane that surround the substance and pinch off to form an intracellular vesicle inside the cell
hypertonic
in comparing two solutions, referring to the one with a greater solute concentration
membrane potential
the charge difference between a cell’s cytoplasm and the extracellular fluid, due to the differential distribution of ions. Membrane potential affects the activity of excitable cells and the transmembrane movement of all charged substances
isotonic
having the same solute concentration as another solution
osmoregulation
The regulation of solute and water concentrations in body fluids by organisms living in hyperosmotic, hypoosmotic, and terrestrial environments
osmosis
The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
turgid
Very firm. A walled cell become turgid if it has a greater solute concentration than its surroundings, resulting in entry of water.
plasmolysis
A phenomenon in walled cells in which the cytoplasm shrivels and the plasma membrane pulls away from the cell wall when the cell loses water to a hypertonic environment
facilitated diffusion
the spontaneous passage of molecules and ions, bound to specific carrier proteins, across a biological membrane down their concentration gradients
gated channels
a protein channel in a cell membrane that opens or closes in response to a particular stimulus
active transport
the movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport proteins
sodium potassium pump
- a special transport protein in the plasma membrane of animal cells that transports sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell against their concentration gradients
electrochemical gradient
The diffusion gradient of an ion, representing a type of potential energy that accounts for both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential
proton pump
An active transport mechanism in cell membranes that uses ATP to force hydrogen ions out of a cell, generating a membrane potential in the process
cotransport
The coupling of the downhill diffusion of one substance to the uphill transport of another against its own concentration gradient
exocytosis
The cellular secretion of macromolecules by the fusion of vesicles with the plasma membrane
phagocytosis
A type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances, accomplished mainly by macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells
pinocytosis
A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes
receptor mediated endocytosis
- The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances
Fermentation
a catabolic process that creates a limited amount of ATP without the need for oxygen. It only involves glycolysis
krebs cycle
chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondria; the second major stage in cellular respiration
anaerobic
Lacking oxygen; referring to an organism, environment, or cellular process that lacks oxygen and may be poisoned by it
cellular respiration
The most prevalent and efficient catabolic pathway for the production of ATP, in which oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with the organic fuel; glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, and the Electron Transport Chain; • Organic Compounds + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP); • In total 38 ATP are yielded
oxidative phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; takes place in mitochondria of cell
alcohol fermentation
conversion of pyruvate to carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol
redox reaction
chemical process involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another
Substrate-level phosphorylation
adds a phosphate directly to ADP to make ATP by using specialized enzymes; takes place in cytosol
lactic acid fermentation
conversion of pyruvate to lactate with no release of carbon dioxide
oxidation
loss of electrons from a substance involved in a redox reaction
acetyl CoA
entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme; formed during the breakdown of glucose by adding a two-carbon fragment to a carrier molecule
facultative anaerobe
organism that makes ATP by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions
reduction
Addition of electrons to a substance involved in a redox reaction
cytochrome (cyt)
small protein found loosely associated with the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. It is a soluble protein and is an essential component of the electron transfer chain. It is capable of undergoing oxidation and reduction. It also plays an important role in the transfer of electrons
reducing agent
electron donor in the redox reaction.
ATP synthase
a general term for an enzyme that can synthesize ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by utilizing some form of energy; ADP+ Pi ----> ATP
oxidizing agent
electron acceptor in the redox reaction
chemiosmosis
process by which ATP is produced in the inner membrane of a mitochondrion. The electron transport system transfers protons from the inner compartment to the outer; as the protons flow back to the inner compartment, the energy of their movement is used to add phosphate to ADP, forming ATP
NAD+
coenzyme present in all cells that helps enzymes transfer electrons during the redox reactions of metabolism
proton motive force
potential energy that is generated from the pumping of hydrogen ions across biological membranes during chemiosmosis
glycolysis
the splitting of glucose into pyruvate. Glycolysis is the one metabolic pathway that occurs in all living cells, serving as the staring point for fermentation or aerobic respiration; 2 ATP made
aerobic
containing or requiring oxygen
Photosynthesis
the conversion of light energy to chemical energy that is stored in glucose or other organic compounds; occurs in plants, algae, and certain prokaryotes; 6CO2 + light energy + 12H2O → 6O2 + C6H12O6 (glucose)
Autotrophs
An organism that obtains organic food molecules without eating other organisms or substances derived from other organisms. Autotrophs use energy from the sun or from the oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic one
heterotrophs
An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products
absorption spectrum
a graph plotting a pigment's light absorption versus wavelength
chlorophyll a
A type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions
chlorophyll b
A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a
carotenoids
An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis
photo system
Consists of a reaction center surrounded by light harvesting complexes
photophosphorylation
The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds in the chloroplast before the Calvin cycle occurs
visible light
That portion of the electromagnetic spectrum detected as various colors by the human eye, ranging in wavelength from about 380 nm to about 750 nm
photons
Discrete particles with a fixed quantity of energy
cyclic flow of electrons
- Uses photosystem I but not photosystem II
- "Short circuit"
- The electrons cycle back from ferredoxin to a P700 chlorophyll in the PS I reaction center.
- There is no production of NADPH and no release of oxygen. Does, however, generate ATP.
chlorophyll
- Green pigment within plant cells that absorbs light energy from the sun
- Found mainly in mesophyll cells
glyceraldehyde 3-phophate (G3P)
The carbohydrate produced directly from the Calvin cycle
mesophylll
tissue on the interior of the leaf
rubisco
The Calvin cycle enzyme that adds CO2 to ribulose bisphosphate (carbon fixation)
stomata
- Small pores where CO2 enters and leaves the cell
action spectrum
- Profiles the effectiveness of different wavelengths of radiation in driving photosynthesis
C3 plants
- A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO 2 into organic material, forming a three–carbon compound as the first stable intermediate
stroma
- Dense fluid within the chloroplast
- Where the Calvin cycle takes place
photorespiration
- A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide
light reactions
- The steps in photosynthesis that occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast and that convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, evolving oxygen in the process
C4 plants
- A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO 2 into a four–carbon compound, the end product of which supplies CO 2 for the Calvin cycle
calvin cycle
- The second of two major stages in photosynthesis (following the light reactions), involving atmospheric CO 2 fixation and reduction of the fixed carbon into carbohydrate
NADP+
- Electron acceptor used in photosynthesis
- Is produced by the light reactions by means of reduction
reaction center
- Has two special chlorophyll a molecules that uses light energy to boost an electron towards the primary electron acceptor
primary electron acceptor
- A specialized molecule sharing the reaction center with the pair of reaction–center chlorophyll a molecules; it accepts an electron from one of these two chlorophylls
PEP carboxylase
- An enzyme that adds CO2 to phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), forming the four–carbon product oxaloacetate
photosystem I
- One of two light–capturing units in a chloroplast′s thylakoid membrane; it has two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a at its reaction center
non cyclic electron flow
A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+
cell cycle
an ordered sequence of events in the life of a eukaryotic cell, from its origin in the division of a parent cell until its own division into two; composed of the M, G 1 , S, and G 2 phases
chromosomes
are long pieces of DNA found in the center (nucleus) of cells. DNA is the material that holds genes. It is considered the building block of the human body
kinetochore
A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle
metastasis
The spread of cancer cells to locations distant from their original site
mitotic spindle
An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis
cell division
reproduction of cells
interphase
The period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. Interphase accounts for 90% of the cell cycle
metaphase
The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate.
mitosis
A process of nuclear division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Mitosis conserves chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the daughter nuclei
genome
All of the genetic information, the entire genetic complement, all of the hereditary material possessed by an organism
G1 phase
(1st gap) The first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before DNA synthesis begins
cleavage furrow
The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell
anaphase
The fourth stage of mitosis, in which the chromatids of each chromosome have separated and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the poles of the cell
somatic cell
Any cell in a multicellular organism except a sperm or egg cell
S phase
The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated
cell plate
A double membrane across the midline of a dividing plant cell, between which the new cell wall forms during cytokinesis
cyclin
A regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically
gametes
A reproductive cell or sex cell that contains the haploid set of chromosomes, e.g. sperm cell and egg cell/ovum
G2 phase
The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after DNA synthesis occurs
binary fission
The type of cell division by which prokaryotes reproduce. Each dividing daughter cell receives a copy of the single parental chromosome
cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells immediately after mitosis
tumor
a mass of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue
chromatin
the structure of the chromosome when a cell is not dividing, even as the DNA is duplicating for cell division, long and thin fiber, during cell division ~ condenses
prophase
The first stage of mitosis, in which the chromatin is condensing and the mitotic spindle begins to form, but the nucleolus and nucleus are still intact
M phase
(mitotic phase) the phase of the cell cycle that includes mitosis and cytokinesis
benign tumor
A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin
sister chromatid
Replicated forms of a chromosome joined together by the centromere and eventually separated during mitosis or meiosis II
prometaphase
The second stage of mitosis, in which discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments, and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes
telophase
The fifth and final stage of mitosis, in which daughter nuclei are forming and cytokinesis has typically begun
malignant tumor
a cancerous tumor that is invasive enough to impair the functions of one or more organs
centromere
The centralized region joining two sister chromatids
metaphase
The third stage of mitosis, in which the spindle is complete and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all aligned at the metaphase plate
cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk)
A protein kinase that is active only when attached to a particular cyclin.
hereditary
transmission of traits from one generation to the next
variation
offspring differ somewhat from parents in appearance; independent assortment, crossing over, random fusion of gametes, mutations
genetics
Scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation
gene
A discrete unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA
asexual reproduction
A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical offspring by budding or by the division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts
sexual reproduction
Two parents give rise to offspring that have unique combinations of genes inherited from the gametes of the two parents
alteration of generation
A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte, characteristic of plants and some algae
homologous chromosomes
pair of chromosomes; one paternal one maternal
autosomal chromosomes
22 pairs; not involved in determining sex
sex chromosomes
1 pair; XX OR XY
zygote
The diploid product of the union of haploid gametes in conception (a fertilized egg)
fertilization
The union of haploid gametes to produce a diploid zygote
karyotope
A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size, number, shape, and type
meiosis
A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in cells with half the chromosome number of the original cell
interphase
The period in the cell cycle when the cell is not dividing. During interphase, cellular metabolic activity is high, chromosomes and organelles are duplicated, and cell size may increase. Interphase accounts for 90% of the cell cycle
prophase I
• Longest phase
• Chromosomes condense
• Homologous chromosomes loosely pair
• Crossing-Over- DNA molecules in nonsister chromatids break at corresponding places and then rejoin to the other’s DNA
• Synapsis- Portions of homologous chromosomes and genes cross back and forth
• Tetrad Formation- Once the synaptonemal complex dissembles, each chromosome pair becomes visible in the microscope as a tetrad, which is a group of 4 chromatids
• Chiasma (chiasmata=plural)- Criss-crossed regions where crossing over has occurred, which holds the homologous chromosomes together
• Movement of centrosomes, formation of spindle microtubules, breakdown of the nuclear envelope, and the dispersal of nucleoli
• The kinetochores of each homologue attach to microtubules from one pole or the other
• Homologous pairs move toward the metaphase plate
metaphase I
• Tetrads align at the metaphase plate
• Each of the two homologous chromosomes in the tetrad are attached to kinetochore microtubules from each pole
anaphase I
• Homologous chromosomes pull apart
• Chromosomes move toward the poles guided by the spindle apparatus
• Separation accomplished by
• Disassembly of kinetochore microtubules
• Elongation by nonkinetochore microtubules
telophase I
• Chromosomes reach opposite poles
• Each cell has a haploid number of chromosomes, but is still composed of sister chromatids
cytokinesis (for meiosis)
• Formation of two haploid daughter cells
• Animal Cells- Form a cleavage furrow
• Plant Cells- Form a cell plate
• Sometimes, the chromosome decondense and the nuclear envelope and nucleoli re-form
interkinesis
• Nuclear envelopes may form
• No replication of chromosomes takes place
prophase II
• Spindle apparatus forms
• Chromosomes are still composed of sister chromatids that are moving toward the metaphase II plate
metaphase II
• Sister chromatids align at the metaphase II plate
• Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are not genetically identical
anaphase II
• Sister chromatids separate
• Moving now as two individual chromosomes toward opposite poles
telophase II
• Each cell has a haploid number of chromosomes
• Nuclei forms and the chromosomes begin to decondense
character
Heritable feature that varies among individuals ex. Flower color
Trait
Variant for a character ex. Purple or white flowers
true-breeding
Offspring of the same variety by self-pollinating (plants)
hybridization
Mating, or crossing of two true-breeding varieties
monohybrid cross
A cross between parents who are heterozygous for one character
P generation
parental generation
F1 Generation
first filial generation
F2 Generation
second filial generation
alleles
Alternative versions of a gene
dominant allele
determines the organism's appearance
recessive allele
No noticeable effect on the organisms appearance
law of segregation
The two alleles for a heritable character separate during gamete formation and end up in different gametes
homozygous
identical alleles for a character
heterozygous
two different alleles for a character
phenotype
Physical appearance, traits
test cross
Breeding of a recessive homozygote with an organism of dominant phenotype but unknown genotype
genotype
genetic makeup
law of independent assortment
Each pair of alleles segregates independently of other pairs of alleles during gamete formation
incomplete dominance
Dominance falls in the middle of two alleles ex. Pink flowers from red and white
complete dominance
One allele has complete dominance over the other
codominance
Two alleles both affect the phenotype in separate distinguishable ways ex. Cat that appears blue but up close hair alternates yellow and green
multiple alleles
Most genes exist in populations in more than two allelic forms ex. ABO blood type
pleiotropy
Genes have multiple phenotypic effects, sickle-cell
epistasis
A gene at one locus alters the phenotypic expression of a gene at a second locus
polygenic inheritance
Additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character (opposite of pleiotropy)
norm of reaction
Phenotypic range
dihybrid cross
is a cross between F1 offspring (first generation offspring) of two individuals that differ in two traits of particular interest.
carriers
is a person or other organism that has inherited a genetic trait or mutation. Has it but may not express it.
cystic fibrosis
Caused by a mutation in the gene. It is normally supposed to code for a membrane protein that function in chlorideion transport between certain cells and the extracellular fluid. These transport tubes are absent in children who inherit two recessive alleles for cystic fibrosis. High concentration of chloride, mucus coats cells.
tay-sachs disease
Inherited disorder in humans. Caused by a genetic defect in a single gene with one defective copy of that gene inherited from each parent. The disease occurs when harmful quantities of gangliosides accumulate in the nerve cells of the brain, eventually leading to the premature death of those cells. Results in poor mental and physical state.
sickle cell disease
Cause by the substitution of a single amino acid in the hemoglobin protein of red blood cells. Clots vessels, example of pleiotrophy.
huntington's disease
Incurable neurodegenerative genetic disorder that affects muscle coordination and some cognitive functions. The disease is caused by a dominant mutation on either of the two copies of a specific gene, located on chromosome 4.
chromosome theory of inheritance
a basic principle stating that genes are located on chromosomes and that the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for inheritance patterns
linkage map
a genetic map based on the frequencies of recombination between markers during crossing over of homologous chromosomes
polyploidy
a chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets
parental type
an offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the parental phenotypes
deletion
a deficiency in a chromosome resulting from the loss of a fragment through breakage
wild type
an individual with the normal (most common) phenotype
recombinants
an offspring whose phenotype differs from that of the parents
duplication
an aberration in chromosome structure due to fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome
mutant phenotype
an offspring with a rare change in the DNA of a gene, creating genetic diversity
hemophilia
a human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by excessive bleeding following injury
inversion
an aberration in chromosome structure resulting from reattachment in a reverse orientation of a chromosomal fragment to the chromosome from which the fragment originated
sex linked gene
a gene located on a sex chromosome
linked genes
genes located close enough together on a chromosome to be usually inherited together
non disjunction
an error in meiosis or mitosis, in which both members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or both sister chromatids fail to move apart properly
down syndrome
a human genetic disease caused by presence of an extra chromosome 21; characterized by mental retardation and heart and respiratory defects
genetic recombination
general term for the production of offspring that combine traits of the two parents
aneuploidy
a chromosomal aberration in which one or more chromosomes are present in extra copies or are deficient in number
fragile X syndrome
genetic condition involving changes in part of the x chromosome; most common form of inherited mental retardation in males and a significant cause of mental retardation in females
phages
A virus that infects bacteria; also called a bacteriophage
DNA polymerase
the enzyme that adds nucleotides to the end of the elongated template strand
primase
the enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to the primer section of the DNA so that the DNA primase can then start to code for nucleotides
nuclease
An enzyme that hydrolyzes DNA and RNA into their component nucleotides
double helix
the shape DNA is in. the two strands are counter parallel of each other.
leading s trand
the strand that is continuously elongated working toward the replication fork in the 5’-> 3’ direction
helicase
the enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication fork
excision repair
the nuclease cuts (or excises) damaged parts of the strand and then ligase & polymerase adds more
semiconservative model
the model that says half of the original strand is used in the daughter strand.
lagging strand
the strand that is working away from the replication fork, still in the 5’-> 3’ direction. The fragments of the lagging strand are called Okazaki fragments
telomerase
catalyzes the lengthening of telomeres in eukaryotic germ cells, compensating for the shortening that occurs during DNA replication
single strand binding protein
the protein that keeps the two strands from coming back together after helicase separates them.
origins of replication
The replication of a DNA molecule begins at special sites called origins of replication
DNA
the genetic building block of this class. So help you if you don’t know what DNA is
ligase
the enzyme that joins the sugar phosphate backbones of the Okazaki fragments , forming a single new DNA strand
protein
the substance that DNA codes to made.
replication fork
the place in the DNA where the two strands are split and coded.
primer
the initial nucleotide chain that is short , short stretch of RNA with an available 3’ end
one gene one polypeptide
- Each gene in DNA will code for one and only one specific polypeptide
transcription
- The process by which the cell makes a strand of pre-mRNA from a single strand of DNA
messenger RNA (mRNA)
A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein
terminator
- A special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene
translation
The synthesis of a polypeptide using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule. There is a change of languagefrom nucleotides to amino acids
initiation
(translation) a small ribosomal subunit binds to the 5' end of the mRNA synthesized in transcription. The anticodon that corresponds to the start codon AUG then binds to the start codon
elongation
(translation) each codon is read by the ribosome and paired with the corresponding tRNA, moving down the mRNA and each time adding an amino acid to the polypeptide sequence
termination
(translation) When the ribosome reaches one of these stop codons, it attaches a release factor which then accepts a water molecule, thereby hydrolyzing the polypeptide chain and causing it to break off
o Stop codons: UGA, UAA, UAG
RNA processing
- The process that pre-mRNA must undergo before it can be used in translation
- A 5' cap is added to the beginning of the strand and a poly (A) tail to the 3' end after the introns are cut out
triplet code
- A group of 3 DNA nucleotides that are read three as a time because they code for a specific codon
template strand
- The DNA strand that provides the template for ordering the sequence of nucleotides in an RNA transcript
codon
A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid or termination signal; the basic unit of the genetic code.
transcription unit
- The region of a DNA molecule that is transcribed into an RNA molecule
transcription factors
- A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and stimulates transcription of specific genes
primary transcript
- An initial RNA transcript; also called pre–mRNA when transcribed from a protein–coding gene
TATA box
- A promoter DNA sequence crucial in forming the transcription initiation complex
5' cap
- The 5′ end of a pre–mRNA molecule modified by the addition of a cap of guanine nucleotide
poly (A) tail
- The modified end of the 3′ end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides
RNA splicing
The removal of noncoding portions of the RNA molecule after initial synthesis by spliceosomes
intron
- A noncoding, intervening part of pre-mRNA that is taken out by spliceosomes
domain
An independently folding part of a protein
transfer RNA (tRNA)
An RNA molecule that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid and protein language by picking up specific amino acids and recognizing the appropriate codons in the mRNA
anticodon
- a group of 3 RNA nucleotides that are attaches to tRNA and will bond with a certain codon, allowing the tRNA to donate its amino acid
wobble
- A violation of the base–pairing rules in that the third nucleotide (5′ end) of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position (3′ end) of a codon
aminoacyl-tRNA
- tRNA that has an amino acid attaches to it
sysnthetases
- An enzyme that joins each amino acid to the correct tRNA
ribsomal RNA (rRNA)
- Is synthesized from rRNA genes on the DNA, and then joined with proteins to make ribosomes, which are directly used in translation
A site
- The site in proteins where a tRNA first attaches to a codon
P site
- The site in ribosomes where the amino acid of tRNA is bonded to the adjacent amino acid by means of the large ribosomal subunit
E site
- The site in ribosomes where tRNA exists after it has donated its amino acid
polyribosome
- A combination of several ribosomes attached to one messenger RNA molecule
point mutation
- A change in a gene at a single nucleotide pair
- Silent mutations: they have no effect on the encoded protein
exon
- After RNA processing, they are the segments of RNA left in the mRNA
- Joined together by spliceosomes
base pair substitution
- the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner with another pair of nucleotides
missesnse mutation
- the altered codon still codes for an amino acid and thus makes sense
nonsense mutation
- A mutation in which the change in a codon then codes for a stop codon
- causes translation to be terminated prematurely
insertion
- A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene
deletion
- A mutational loss of one or more nucleotide pairs from a gene
frameshift mutation
- A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in the improper grouping of the following nucleotides into codons
mutagens
- A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation
spliceosome
- A complex assembly that interacts with the ends of an RNA intron in splicing RNA, releasing the intron and joining the two adjacent exons
snRNP
- Small nuclear ribonucleoprotein
- Binds with proteins to form a spliceosome
- Tells the spliceosome where to cut the pre-mRNA
RNA polymerase
- Travels along the DNA, attached to the beginning of a region of DNA called the promoter by protein transcription factors
- Untwists the DNA double helix, traveling along the DNA from 3; to 5', pairing RNA nucleotides that compliment the DNA strand
reading frame
- The way a cell groups the mRNA nucleotides into codons
capsid
the protein shell that encloses a viral genome; it may be rod-shaped, polyhedral, or more complex in shape
provirus
viral DNA that inserts into a host genome
transformation
a change in genotype and phenotype due to the assimilation of external DNA by a cell
operator
in prokaryotic DNA, a sequence of nucleotides near the start of an operon to which an active repressor can attach; the binding of the repressor prevents RNA polymerase from attaching to the promoter and transcribing the genes of the operon
viral envelope
a membrane that cloaks the capsid that in turn encloses a viral genome
retrovirus
an RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses
transduction
a DNA transfer process in which phages carry bacterial genes from one host cell to another
operon
a unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions
reverse transcriptase
an enzyme encoded by some certain viruses (retroviruses) that uses RNA as a template for DNA synthesis
conjugation
in prokaryotes, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined
host range
the limited range of host cells that each type of virus can infect and parasitize
HIV
human immunodeficiency virus; the infectious agent that causes AIDS; HIV is a retrovirus
F factor
a fertility factor in bacteria; a DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer from donor to recipient; it may exist as a plasmid or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome
regulatory gene
a gene that codes for a protein, such as a repressor, that controls the transcription of another gene or group of genes
lytic cycle
a type of viral replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by lysis (and death) of the host cell
AIDS
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome; the name of the late stages of HIV infection, defined by a specified reduction of T cells and the appearance of characteristic secondary infections
repressor
a protein that suppresses the transcription of a gene
corepressor
a small molecule that cooperates with a repressor protein to switch on operon off
virulent
a term describing a pathogen against which a plant has little specific defense
vaccine
a harmless variant or derivative of a pathogen that stimulates a host’s immune system to mount defenses against the pathogen
F plasmid
the plasmid form of the F factor
inducer
a specific small molecule that inactivates the repressor in an operon
lysogenic cycle
a phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host
viron
a single virus particle
R plasmid
a bacterial plasmid carrying genes that confer resistance to certain antibiotics
cyclic amp (cAMP)
cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells; also a regulator of some bacterial operons
temperate virus
a virus that can reproduce without killing the host
prion
an infectious form of protein that may increase in number by converting related proteins to more prions
transposon
a transposable genetic element that moves within a genome by means of a DNA intermediate
cAMP receptor protein
regulatory protein in bacteria; binds cAMP, which causes a conformational change that allows the protein to bind tightly to a specific DNA sequence in the promoters of the genes it controls
prophage
a phage genome that has been inserted into a specific site on the bacterial chromosome
nucleoid
a dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell
insertion sequence
the simplest kind of transposable element, consisting of inverted repeats of DNA flanking a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition