Bio

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Ionic bond

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– bond that forms from transferring one or more electron from one atom to another

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Covalent bond

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– bond that forms from the sharing of electrons between atoms

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Hydrogen bond

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electromagnetic attractive interaction between polar molecules,

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Ion

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– An atoms that has a positive or negative charge.

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Isomers

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Isomers are molecules with the same molecular formula, but different arrangements of atoms.

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Mono-saccharides

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– single sugar molecules

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Di-saccharides

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Disaccharides are a group of sugars composed of two monosaccharide groups linked together through the loss of sugar.

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polysaccharides

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– large macromolecules formed from mono-saccharides

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Saturated fats

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- fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain.

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unsaturated fats

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a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain. A fatty acid chain is monounsaturated if it contains one double bond, and polyunsaturated if it contains more than one double bond

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Monomer

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– one unit

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Polymer

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– large compound formed from combinations of many monomers

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Dehydration synthesis

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It is a type of condensation reaction in which monomers join together into polymers while losing water molecules. This process is carried out by losing (-OH) from one of the monomers and (H) from another monomer. The two unstable monomers join together, and the (-OH) and (H) combine forming water (H2O) For example, A-OH + B-H → AB + HOH

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Hydrolysis

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The process of splitting a compound into fragments with the addition of water; a kind of reaction that is used to break down polymers into simpler units, e.g. starch into glucose.

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Peptide bond

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a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule.

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Amino acid

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– compounds with an amino group on one end and a carboxyl group on the other end

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Polypeptide

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a linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule.

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Nucleotide

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–monomer of nucleic acids made up of a phosphate group, and 5-carbon sugar, and one of four nitrogenous bases

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Protein –

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macromolecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen; needed by the body for growth and repair and to make up enzymes.

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carbohydrate –

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compound made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms; major source of energy for the human body.

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lipid

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– macromolecules made mainly from carbon and hydrogen atoms; includes fats, oils ,and waxes

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nucleic acid

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– macromolecules containing hydrogen , oxygen, nitrogen, carbon and phosphorus.

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Catalyst

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– a substance that speeds up the rate of a reaction

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Enzyme

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– protein that acts as a biological catalyst

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Substrate

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– reactant of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction

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Active site

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a region on an enzyme that binds to a protein or other substance during a reaction

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Homeostasis

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– process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

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Metabolism

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– set of chemical reactions through which an organism builds up or breaks down materials as it carries out its life processes

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Anabolism

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the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy; constructive metabolism

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Catabolism

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the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy; destructive metabolism

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Polar

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If a molecule is asymmetric, so one side is different from the other, and the opposite poles have different electric charge, then a molecule is polar. It helps the molecule dissolve in water and it can cause the molecule to act as a detergent, i.e. one part of the molecule sticks to something which is poorly soluble while the other part binds the water molecules.

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Solute

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- The substance that is dissolved

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solvent

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– the substance that the solute is mixed into.

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Cohesion

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– attraction between molecules of the same substance

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Adhesion

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– attraction between molecules of different substances.

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Surface tension

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The expression of intermolecular attraction at the surface of a liquid, in contact with air or another gas, a solid, or another liquid, tending to pull the molecules of the liquid inward from the surface

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Specific heat

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– the temperature at which a substance boils

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Capillary action

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– tendency of water to rise in a thin tube

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Hypotonic

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– tendency of water to rise in a thin tube

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Hypertonic

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“ “, the solution with the greater concentration of solutes

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isotonic

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– When the concentration of two solutions is the same

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Phospholipid bilayer

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The two layers of phospholipids arranged in such a way that their hydrophobic tails are projecting inwards while their polar head groups are projecting on the outside surfaces

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Hydrophilic –

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Hydrophilic molecules typically have polar groups enabling them to readily absorb or dissolve in water as well as in other polar solvents.

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hydrophobic

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– literally: afraid of water, Hydrophobic Molecules are insoluble in water, and repel water.

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Transport protein

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–A type of protein that actively transports materials across a plasma membrane that would not otherwise allow this to occur

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marker protein.

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-proteins which extend across the cell membrane and serve to identify the cell. The immune system uses these proteins to tell friendly cells from foreign invaders. They are as unique as fingerprints. They play an important role in organ transplants

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receptor protein

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proteins may be located at cell surfaces or within the interior of cells. They may detect hormones or instead keep track of what otherwise is going on in cell's environment

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Chromosome

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– contains dna coding

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chromatid

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– one of two identical “sister” parts of a duplicated chromosome

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chromatin

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–granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of dna tightly coiled around proteins.

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Homologous chromosomes

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– chromosomes that each have a corresponding chromosome from the opposite-sex parent.

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Spindle fibers

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– fan like micro tubule structure that helps separate the chromosomes during mitosis

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G1, S, and G2 phases of interphase

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G1: the cell does most of its growing; increases its size and synthesizes new proteins and organelles. S: chromosomes are replicated and DNA molecules are synthesized. G2: many organelles and molecules needed for cell division are produced.

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DNA replication

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the DNA molecule separates into two strands, and then produces two new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each strand of the double helix serves as a template for the new strand. The principal enzyme used in this process is DNA polymerase, which joins individual nucleotides to form the DNA molecule (the polymer

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Mitosis (and its phases):

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(before mitosis is interphase where cell prepares for splitting. Replicated dna) prophase: The chromosomes are doubled metaphase: Chromosomes line up in center of cells and spindle fibers form. Anaphase: The spindle fibers split and the chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell. The cell starts to split. Telophase: The cell splits completely.

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Cancer

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– Cells become cancerous after mutations accumulate in the various genes that control cell proliferation.

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Diffusion –

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process by which molecules tend to move from an area of higher concentration to lower

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facilitated diffusion –

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movement of specific molecules across cell membranes through protein channels.

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active transport

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: Molecules move against “flow of current” (So molecules move to areas with lower concentration in passive transport, but in active they will travel to areas with higher concentration)

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Osmosis

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diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

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endocytosis

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– process by which a cell takes material unto the cell by infolding of the cell membrane.

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Exocytosis

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– process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

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Pinocytosis

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– process by which a cell takes in liquid from the surrounding environment

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phagocytosis –

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process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell.

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Eukaryotic

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- contain nuclei

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prokaryotic

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no membrane bound nuclei

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Photosynthesis

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– Process through which plants get food: Stomata in leaves take in carbon dioxide, chloroplasts take in sunlight/energy, and the roots take in water. The energy acts as a catalyst to speed up the reaction between the CO2 and water. The result is oxygen and glucose.

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Cellular respiration

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the process by which the chemical energy of "food" molecules is released and partially captured in the form of ATP.

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Light dependent reactions

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a process which  convert light energy into chemical energy, producing ATP and NADPH

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Calvin cycle

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a metabolic pathway found in the stroma of the chloroplast in which carbon enters in the form of CO2 and leaves in the form of sugar.

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Glycolysis

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the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid

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Kreb cycle

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the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP.

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Electron transport chain

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The electron transport chain (aka ETC) is a process in which the NADH and [FADH2] produced during glycolysis, β-oxidation, and other catabolic processes are oxidized thus releasing energy in the form of ATP.

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ATP

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- organic compound composed of adenosine (an adenine ring and a ribose sugar) and three phosphate groups

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ADP -

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An organic compound composed of adenosine (an adenine ring and a ribose sugar) and two phosphate groups

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NADH

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is a high energy molecule used by cells to generate ATP. H+ is the proton that is "snatched" away from the NADH leaving behind, NAD. In simple terms the electron transport chain "snatches" a H+ from NADH.

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FADH2

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an energy-carrying molecule, and the reduced coenzyme can be used as a substrate for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria

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NADPH

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an organic molecule, similar to NADH in animals, that is reduced in plants during photosynthesis

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fermentation

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the chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving effervescence and the giving off of heat.

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Meiosis

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a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.

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Inversion

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A defect in the chromosome in which a segment of the chromosome breaks off and reinserted in the same place but in the reverse direction relative to the rest of the chromosome.

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Translocation

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the transportation of a dissolved material in a plant

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Deletion

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– (A|C)o(D|E|F)

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Duplication

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(A|B|B|C)o(D|E|F)

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Nondisjunction (monosomy, trisomy) (In mitosis)

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The failure of sister chromatids to separate during and after mitosis. (In meiosis) The failure of homologous chromosomes to segregate or to separate during and after meiosis.

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Point mutation

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a mutation in DNA or RNA that only affects one nucleotide base

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Frameshift mutation

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A type of gene mutation wherein the addition or deletion of (a number of) nucleotide(s) causes a shift in the reading frame of the codons in the mRNA, thus, may eventually lead to the alteration in the amino acid sequence at protein translation.

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Codominance

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both the dominant and recessive alleles are shown equally in the offspring.

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Incomplete dominance –

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A kind of dominance occurring in heterozygotes in which the dominant allele is only partially expressed, and usually resulting in an offspring with an intermediate phenotype. (so one animal red and one white would make pink)

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Multiple alleles

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having three or more alleles for one specific trait

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Sex-linked traits

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A trait genetically determined by an allele located on the sex chromosome

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DNA

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A double-stranded nucleic acid that contains the genetic information for cell growth, division, and function.

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mRNA

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Abbreviated form for messenger ribonucleic acid, the type of RNA that codes for the chemical blueprint for a protein (during protein synthesis)

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tRNA

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RNA involved in protein synthesis, i.e. transporting specific amino acid to the ribosome to be added onto the growing polypeptide chain

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codon

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A set of three adjacent nucleotides, also called triplet, in mRNA that base-pair with the corresponding anticodon of tRNA molecule that carries a particular amino acid, hence, specifying the type and sequence of amino acids for protein synthesis

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transcription

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The dna is transcribed or copied onto the messenger RNA

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translation

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The rna is then translated back into dna. (example: if RNA coding is AGCUAUUCAG then it would translate to TCGATAAGTC)

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intron

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a noncoding sequence of dna within a gene, that is transcribed into hnrna but is then cut out of the message by rna splicing in the nucleus, leaving a mature mrna that is then translated in the cytoplasm.

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Exon

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The protein-coding region in the DNA.

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Promoter

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The protein-coding region in the DNA.

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Operator

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A segment of DNA where the repressor binds to , thereby preventing the transciption of certain genes.

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operon

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A group of genes or a segment of DNA that functions as a single transcription unit. It is comprised of an operator, a promoter, and one or more structural genes that are transcribed into one polycistronic mRNA.