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156 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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First stage of food processing? |
Eating The mouth is involved in both chemical and mechanical digestion since enzymes begin the chemical breakdown of starch |
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Second stage of food processing? |
Digestion Breakdown of food into molecules small enough to be absorbed. In stomach includes mechanical and chemical(hydrolysis) |
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Third stage of food processing? |
Absorption Uptake of small nutrient molecules, primarily by the cells in the small intestine |
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Fourth stage of food processing? |
Elimination The disposal of undigested matter in the rectum (last section of the large intestine) and out of the anus. |
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Main structures of the alimentary canal? |
Oral cavity Pharynx Epiglottis Esophagus Stomach Small intestine Large intestine Anus |
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Oral cavity? |
Opening where food is taken in (mouth) |
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Pharynx? |
Receives food from oral cavity |
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Epiglottis? |
Flap that moves to cover entrance of trachea directing food down esophagus |
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Esophagus? |
Muscular tube connecting pharynx to stomach. Food moves through via muscle contractions called peristalsis |
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Stomach? |
Stretches to store food, cells lining stomach secrete gastric juice to help digest. |
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Small intestine? |
Longest section of alimentary canal, principal site of enzymatic hydrolysis and absorption of nutrients |
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Large intestine? |
Water is absorbed and returned to the blood stream. Remaining is indigestible food and prokaryotic organisms that normally inhabit the large intestine which is formed into feces and stored in the rectum. |
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Anus? |
2 sphincter muscles, 1 voluntary, 1 not. Regulate the opening of the anus. Stimulation of nerves in colon create urge to defecate. When voluntary sphincter muscle is relaxed, feces are expelled. |
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List the accessory organs |
Liver Gallbladder Pancreas Salivary glands |
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Liver? |
Secretes bile helping the process of fat digestion |
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Gallbladder? |
Stores bile produced by liver |
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Pancreas? |
Secretes liquid into small intestine that helps neutralize stomach acid and continues chemical digestion of food |
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Salivary glands? |
Secretes saliva containing salivary amylase which breaks down starch into simple sugars |
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What are villi? |
Tiny finger like extensions on the inside of the small intestine |
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What are microvilli? |
Microscopic projections along each cell of the villi |
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What is the function of villi and microvilli? |
These structures give the small intestine the surface area where absorption can occur |
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What is peristalsis? |
Contraction of muscles that propels food through digestive tube |
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What two things do a balanced diet provide? |
Building materials Energy |
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What is an essential nutrient? |
Substance an organism must absorb in pre assembled form because it cannot synthesize the nutrient from any other material |
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What four types of essential nutrients must we get from our diet? |
Vitamins minerals amino acids essential fatty acids |
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How is food related to ATP? |
The glucose that serves as the input to cellular respiration is obtained by the food you eat |
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What do vitamins do? |
Required in small amounts, they are necessary to health and lack of them leads to disease |
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Are vitamins organic? |
Yes |
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What are minerals? |
Elements required to maintain health some in large amounts (calcium) some in small amounts (iron) |
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Are minerals organic? |
No |
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List the vitamins |
A B C D E K |
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Which vitamins are water - soluble? |
C and B |
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Which vitamins are fat soluble? |
A,D,E, and K |
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Why do we need fatty acids? |
To make fats and other lipids |
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How many essential amino acids are there? |
8 |
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How do we use amino acids? |
We obtain them from diet because our cells can not make them |
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Can we get all 8 essential amino acids from plant sources? |
Yes |
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What is BMI? |
Body mass index: a ratio of weight to height |
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What is the BMI value for under weight? |
<18.5 |
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What is the BMI value for normal? |
18.5-24 |
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What is the BMI value for overweight? |
25-29 |
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What is the BMI value for obese? |
30-39 |
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What is the BMI value for extremely obese? |
>39 |
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What is malnutrition? |
The absence of one or more essential nutrients from the diet |
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What is under nutrition? |
Lack of calories, protein, vitamins, etc |
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What is obesity? |
An excessively high BMI |
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What are the health effects of obesity? |
diabetes colon cancer breast cancer cardiovascular disease |
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What is anorexia nervosa? |
Eating disorder that results in self starvation due to intense fear of gaining weight even when underweight |
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What is bulimia? |
Eating disorder characterized by episodic binge eating followed by purging through induced vomiting, abuse of laxatives, or excessive exercise |
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What is BMR? |
Basal Metabolic Rate, minimum number of kCals needed to keep you alive at rest |
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What factors affect BMR? |
Body size composition gender age |
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Given values and equations for BMR calculate caloric needs |
Men = 66 women = 655 |
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How many excess calories equals 1 pound of fat? |
3500 |
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How would you go about gaining and losing weight? |
Gaining = eating more calories than you burn Losing = eating less than you burn |
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Why are processed foods less healthy? |
Lack essential nutrients Been heated or processed to the point of destroying the structure of essential nutrients |
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What is required on a nutrition label? |
Calories ingredients nutritional breakdown serving size |
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What is cell theory? |
All living things are composed of cells and all cells come from other cells |
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What is the purpose of cell division? |
Reproduction of cells |
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What types of organisms reproduce by binary fission? |
Single cell organisms |
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Are the offspring of asexual reproduction genetically different from the parent? |
No |
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Describe the structure and function of DNA |
Double helix macromolecule nucleotide monomers deoxyribose sugar phosphate group genes Genetic material of all life on Earth |
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What is a gene? |
Unit of inheritance in DNA |
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What does a gene code for? |
Proteins |
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What are chromosomes? |
Gene carrying structure in nucleus of eukaryotic cell |
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Where are chromosomes located? |
Nucleus |
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How many chromosomes do humans have? |
46 |
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Do different species have the same number of chromosomes? |
No |
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What is chromatin? |
DNA and proteins constitutes chromosomes |
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What is the cell cycle? |
from formation until its own division into two cells |
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What are the two parts of the cell cycle? |
Interphase Mitotic phase |
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What happens during interphase? |
duplicates the chromosomes performs normal functions |
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What two processes occur during the mitotic phase? |
Mitosis Cytokinesis |
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What happens during mitosis? |
divides the nucleus distributes duplicated chromosomes into two new cells |
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What happens during cytokinesis? |
Divides cytoplasm producing two daughter cells |
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What are the four phases of mitosis? |
Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase |
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How many daughter cells are produced during mitosis? |
2 |
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Are the daughter cells produced during mitosis genetically identical or different? |
Identical |
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What happens during cytokinesis? |
The cell is split in 2 |
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How are plant and animal cell cytokinesis different? |
Animal cells: cleavage Plant cells: cell plate |
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What is the purpose of mitosis? |
Growth Repair Asexual reproduction |
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What is the purpose of meiosis? |
Produces haploid gametes from diploid cells |
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What is fertilization? |
Union of haploid sperm & haploid egg, producing a zygote |
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What is a zygote? |
fertilized egg from the union of gametes |
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Define diploid |
Contains 2 matched sets of chromosomes |
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Define haploid |
Single set of chromosomes |
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What is a somatic cell? |
Body cells other than gametes |
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Are somatic cells diploid or haploid? |
Diploid except gametes |
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What are gametes? |
Sex cells egg or sperm |
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Are gametes diploid or haploid? |
Haploid |
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Is gamete formation diploid or haploid? |
Haploid |
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Is fertilization diploid or haploid? |
Haploid |
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Is a zygote diploid or haploid? |
Diploid |
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Is development diploid or haploid? |
Diploid |
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Is an adult diploid or haploid? |
Diploid |
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What event changes the chromosome number from diploid to haploid? |
Fertilization |
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What event changes the chromosome number from haploid to diploid? |
Gamete formation |
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What is a karyotype? |
Photographic inventory of chromosomes in one person's cells |
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What can we determine from a karyotype? |
We can determine if the embryo has the correct number and size of all chromosomes |
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What are homologous chromosomes? |
two chromosomes matched pair diploid cell |
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What is an autosome? |
Non sex chromosome |
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How many autosomes do humans have? |
44 |
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What are sex chromosomes? |
chromosome that determines whether male or female |
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What sex chromosomes does a male have? |
XY |
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What sex chromosomes does a female have? |
XX |
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How many cells are produced through meiosis? |
4 |
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Are the cells produced through meiosis diploid or haploid? |
Haploid |
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Are the cells produced through meiosis genetically the same or different? |
All four are genetically different |
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Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis |
Both = duplication of chromosomes mitosis = 1 round of cell division mitosis = diploid mitosis = 2 identical cells meiosis = 2 rounds of cell division meiosis = haploid meiosis = 4 genetically different cells |
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What three events lead to genetic variation? |
Independent assortment Random fertilization Crossing over |
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What is independent assortment and where does it occur? |
First round of gamete formation, chromosomes line up by homologous pair each pair contains one maternal and one paternal the orientation is by chance During meiosis |
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What is crossing over, when does it occur? |
The exchange of segments between chromatids of homologous chromosomes. Prophase 1 of meiosis |
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What is the result of independent assortment and crossing over? |
shuffling of the genes and chromosomes |
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What is nondisjunction? |
Accident of meiosis or mitosis chromosomes & sister chromatids fail to separate at anaphase |
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What results from nondisjunction? |
Unusual numbers of chromosomes |
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What causes Down syndrome? |
Extra chromosome 21st chromosome |
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What causes Klinefelter's syndrome? |
Extra X sex chromosome |
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What causes Turner syndrome? |
1 X sex chromosome |
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What is another name for Down syndrome? |
Trisomy 21 |
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What is a major risk factor for producing a child with Down syndrome? |
Mother over age 35 |
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Define heredity |
Transmission of traits one generation to the next |
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Define genetics |
Scientific study of heredity |
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Who is Gregor Mendel? |
Deduced the underlying principles of genetics |
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Approximately when did Gregor Mendel do his studies? |
In the 19th century the 1850's |
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Define gene |
molecular unit of heredity |
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Define allele |
Alternative version of a gene |
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Define dominant allele |
Determines phenotype |
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Define Recessive allele |
no effect on phenotype |
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Define genotype |
Genetic makeup of an organism |
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Define phenotype |
Expressed traits of an organism |
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Define homozygous dominant |
two copies of the dominant allele |
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Define heterozygous |
Dominant allele expressed |
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Define homozygous recessive |
Recessive trait expressed two copies of recessive allele |
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What is a monohybrid cross? |
A mating of individuals differing at one genetic cross |
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Relate the punnett square and probability to meiosis |
allele in each potential gamete placed above or to the side of each square. All different combinations are illustrated in the boxes and are dependent upon the genotypes of the parents. Each box represents 25% of the offspring |
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How many alleles for each trait does an individual have? Where did they come from? |
2 per trait 1 from father 1 from mother |
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How many alleles for a trait does a gamete contain? |
1 |
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Understand what an individuals phenotype will be based on a given genotype |
Genotype causes phenotype |
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Describe a testcross and explain why it would be used |
mating between an individual of unknown genotype for a particular character and an individual that is homozygous recessive for that same character |
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Define wild-type |
Trait most commonly found in nature |
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Define mutant |
Phenotypic trait less commonly observed in natural populations; opposite of wild-type |
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What is a carrier? |
heterozygous for a recessively inherited disorder does not show symptoms of that disorder |
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What is incomplete dominance? |
phenotype of a heterozygote (Aa) intermediate between phenotypes of 2 types of homozygotes (AA and aa) |
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What is codominance? |
Both alleles expressed equally. Blood type is an example. If you have genotype AB, you will have both A's and B's on your blood cells. Neither dominant, both expressed |
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What is pleiotropy? |
control of more than 1 phenotypic character by a single gene (sickle cell disease) |
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What is polygenic inheritance? |
2 or more genes on a single phenotypic character (pea plant flowers are either purple or white) |
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What are multiple alleles? |
more than 2 common versions of a gene. For example human blood type (ABO) comes in 3 varieties |
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How does the environment affect gene expression? |
ONLY genetic influences are inherited, effects of the environment are NOT passed to the next generation |
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Explain how human blood type works and how antibodies are used to determine blood type |
you have, A, B, AB, or none, antibodies stick to those markers in a blood test so the blood would clump. You naturally have antibodies against the blood types you do not have. you could not receive a blood transfusion from someone with a different surface marker or your antibodies would attack it |
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How can you identify which blood types could receive other types? |
AB can receive any type they don't have antibodies against A or B. O can't receive other than O they have antibodies against BOTH A & B. A could receive from A or O. B could receive from B or O AB is the universal recipient O is the universal donor. |
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What is a linked gene? |
Genes close enough on a chromosome that they're inherited together |
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What is a clone? |
Genetically identical copies of the cell, organism, or DNA molecule |
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How does nuclear transplantation work? |
nucleus of 1 cell placed into another cell that already has a nucleus or the nucleus has been previously destroyed. cell is stimulated to grow, producing an embryo that's a genetic copy of the nucleus donor |
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What is the process for reproductive cloning? |
somatic cell from multicellular organism used to make genetically identical individuals |
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How are plants cloned? |
Placing small samples or individual cells into a growth liquid the cells divide and develop into new plants |
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What are stem cells? |
unspecialized cell can give rise to 1 or more types of specialized cells |
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What is the difference between embryonic and adult stem cells? |
Embryonic = potential to develop into every cell type in the body |
