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111 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Cell differentiation
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the process by which cells become specialized and happens as different cell lineages begin to use different subsets of their genes
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Gene expression
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multistep process by which cells convert information encoded in a gene into an RNA or protein product
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Enhancers
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binding sites for other proteins that can speed transcription
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Activator
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when this binds to a promoter or enhancer, it speeds up transcription
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Repressor
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when this binds to a promoter, it hinders RNA polymerase binding and slows or stops transcription
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Transcription factors
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regulatory proteins such as activators and repressors
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RNA interference
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process where double stranded RNA is cut up into small bits, which are taken up by special enzyme complexes; the complexes destroy all mRNA that is complementary in sequence to the bits
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X chromosome inactivation
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ensures that only one of the two X chromosomes in a female's cells is active
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Dosage compensation
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X chromosome inactivation equalizes the expression of X chromosome genes between the sexes
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ABC model
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explains how the specialized parts of a flower develops three sets of master genes guide the process
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Master genes
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encode products that affect expression of many other genes
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Homeotic genes
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master genes that control formation of specific body parts during the development of embryos
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Knockout experiments
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researchers mutate a genes in a way that prevents its transcription or translation
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Pattern formation
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process by which a complex body forms local processes in an embryo
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Operator
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DNA sequence that is a binding site for a repressor; the binding stops transcription
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Operon
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an arrangement in which a single promoter and one or more operators control access to multiple genes
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Restriction enzyme
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cuts any double-stranded DNA wherever a specific base sequence occurs
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Recombinant DNA
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molecule composed of DNA from two or more organisms
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Plasmids
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small circles of DNA with just a few genes
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DNA cloning
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a set of laboratory procedures that uses living cells to make many identical copies of DNA
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Reverse transcriptase
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replication enzyme isolated from certain viruses; used to transcribe mRNA to DNA in a test tube
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cDNA - complementary DNA
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is assembled by reverse transcriptase from free nucleotides using an mRNA as a template
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Gene library
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collection of host cells containing different cloned fragments of DNA from a particular organism
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Genome
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full set of an organism's genetic material
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Probe
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short fragment of DNA with a sequence complementary to a gene of interest and labeled with a tracer such as a radioisotope or pigment
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Nucleic acid hybridization
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base pairing between DNA from more than one source; used to locate clones that contain a targeted DNA sequence among all other clones in the library
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PCR - polymerase chain reaction
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researchers isolate and mass-produce a particular DNA fragment without cloning
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Primers
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synthetic single strands of DNA, usually between 10 and 30 bases long; designed to case pair only with nucleotide sequences on with end of the DNA sequence to be amplified
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DNA sequencing
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a method in which the order of the nucleotide bases in a DNA fragment can be determined
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Gel electrophoesis
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technique in which DNA fragments are separated
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DNA fingerprint
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unique array of DNA sequences
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Short tandem repeats
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many copies of the same 2-10 base pair sequences positioned one after the next along the length of a chromosome
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Structural genomics
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focuses on determining the 3D structure of the proteins encoded by a genome
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Comparative genomics
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compares genomes of different species
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DNA chips
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microscopic arrays of hundreds of thousands of short DNA fragments that collectively represent an entire genome
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Genetic engineering
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lab process by which deliberate changes are introduced into an individual's genome
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Transgenic organisms
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genes from one species may be transferred to another
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Xenotransplantation
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transferring an organ from one species into another
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Gene therapy
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the transfer of one or more normal or modified genes into an individual's body cells to fix a genetic defect or boost disease resistance
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Biogeography
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study of patterns in the geographic distribution of species
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Comparative morphology
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the study of body plans and structures among groups of organisms
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Catastrophism
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earth's surface was shaped by a sudden, worldwide geologic forces very different from those operating in the present; Cuvier
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Theory of uniformity
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gradual, repetitive change that shaped the earth
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Stratification
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formation of layered sedimentary rock
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Lineage
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line of descent
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Half-life
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time it takes for half of the radioisotope's atoms to decay into a stable product
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Radiometric dating
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ratio of the parent to daughter elements is used to calculate age
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Geologic time scale
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chronology of earth's history
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Macroevolution
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major patterns, trends, and rates of change among lineages
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Plate tectonics theory
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earth's thin outer layer of rock is cracked into immense plates, and the plates grow and sink and move
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Morphological divergence
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change from the body form of a common ancestor
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Analogous structure
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look alike in different lineages but did not evolve in a shared ancestor; they evolved independently after the lineages diverged
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Morphological convergence
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evolution of similar body parts in different lineages
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Homologous structures
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similar body parts that reflect shared ancestry
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Mitochondrial DNA
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used to compare different individuals of the same sexually reproducing animal species
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Taxon
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organism or group of them
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Monophyletic group
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ancestor and all of its descendents
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Six-kingdom classification system
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assigns all of the prokaryotic species to kingdoms Eubacteria and Archaea
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Three-domain system
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sorts the six kingdoms into three higher taxa (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya)
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Cladistics
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method for determining evolutionary relationships which may then be used in phylogenetic classification schemes
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Derived traits
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traits that did not appear in the most recent ancestor
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Clade
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a group species that share a set of derived traits
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Evolutionary trees
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diagrams that summarize our best data supported hypotheses about the pattern of evolution of a group of species
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Population
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one group of individuals of the same species in a specified area
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Gene pool
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pool of genetic resources
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Lethal mutation
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mutation that drastically changes phenotype that usually results in death
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Neutral mutation
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alters the base sequence in DNA but the change has no effect on survival or reproduction
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Allele frequencies
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relative abundances of alleles of a given gene among all individuals of a population
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Genetic equilibrium
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when a population is not evolving with respect to that gene
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Microevolution
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small scale change in a population's allele frequencies which occurs constantly
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Directional selection
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allele frequencies shift in a consistent direction so forms at one end of the range of phenotypic variation become more common than midrange forms
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Antibiotics
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toxins that kill bacteria
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Stabilizing selection
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intermediate forms of a trait in a population are favored and extreme forms are not
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Disruptive selection
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forms at both ends of a range of variation are favored; intermediate forms are selected against
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Sexual dimorphism
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distinct male or female phenotype
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Sexual selection
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genetic winners out reproduce others of a population because they are better at securing mates
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Balanced polymorphisms
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two or more alleles of a gene persist at high frequencies in a population
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Genetic drift
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random change in allele frequencies over time, brought about by chance
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Fixation
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when all of the individuals of a population have become homozygous for one allele
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Bottleneck
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drastic reduction in population size brought by severe pressure
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Founder effect
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small group of individuals found a new population and the group is not representative of the original populations in terms of allele frequencies
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Gene flow
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the movement of alleles among populations
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Speciation
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when new species arise by evolutionary process; begins as gene flow ends between populations
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Reproductive isolating methods
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heritable aspects of body form, function, or behavior that often prevent interbreeding between different species
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Allopatric speciation
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genetic changes leading to a new species that being with physical separation between populations
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Sympatric speciation
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new species form within the home range of existing species
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Polyploid
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having three or more sets of chromosomes characteristic of their species
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Parapatric speciation
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when one population extends across a broad region encompassing diverse habitats
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Gradualism
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evolution occurs by slight changes over long time spans
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Punctuated equilibrium
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evolutionary change occurs over a brief time span followed by long periods of little or no change
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Adaptive radiation
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burst of divergences from a single lineage
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Coevolution
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process which close ecological interactions among species cause them to evolve jointly
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Macroevolution
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large-scale patterns such as one species giving rise to others, the origin of major groups, and major extinction events
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Key innovation
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structural or functional modification that bestows upon its bearer the opportunity to exploit a habitat more efficiently or in a novel way
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Evolutionary adaptation
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a trait that improves an individual's odds of surviving and reproducing in its prevailing environment
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Tissue
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community of cells and extracellular substances that interact in one or more tasks
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Organ
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structural unit made up of tissues arranged in proportions and patters that allow it to carry out a specific task or tasks
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Organ system
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organs that interact in one or more tasks
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Development
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series of stages in which specialized tissues, organs, and organ systems form in heritable patterns
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Extracellular fluid - ECF
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body fluid not inside cells
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Diffusion
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ions or molecules of a substance are concentrated in one place and tend to move to a place where they are not as concentrated
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Active transport
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a protein pumps one specific solute from a region of low concentration to one of higher concentration
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Habitat
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place where individuals of a species typically live
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Interstitial fluid
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fills spaces between cells and tissues
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Sensory receptors
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cells or cell parts that detect stimuli, which are specific forms of energy
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Integrator
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central command post that receives and processes information about stimuli
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Effectors
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carry out suitable responses to stimulation (muscles and glands)
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Negative feedback mechanisms
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an activity changes a specific condition in the internal environment and when the condition changes past a certain point, a response reverses the change
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Positive feedback mechanisms
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spark a chain of events that intensify change from an original condition
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System acquired resistance
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defense response to infections and injured tissues (for plants)
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Compartmentalization
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a plant's response to wounds
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