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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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histones
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the proteins that DNA is coiled around.
maintain shape and help w/ packing |
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nonhistone proteins
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are not involved in the packing of DNA
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chromatid
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half of a chromosome
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centromere
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holds chromatids together
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sex chromosomes
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determine sex of an organism
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autosomes
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body chromosomes
(all except sex chromosomes) |
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number of human chromosomes
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23 pairs (46 total)
-22 pairs of autosomes -1 pair of sex chromosomes |
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homologous chromosomes
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two copies of the same chromosome,
carry genes for the same trait |
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karyotype
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picture of chromosomes paired up
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diploid cell
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cell that has two chromosomes for each trait
(2n) |
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haploid cell
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cell that has only chromosome for each trait
ex-sperm and eggs cells (1n) |
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binary fission
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division of prokaryotes
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steps of binary fission
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1. chromosome copies itself
2. cell grows and divides 3. results in 2 identical copies with one chromosome each |
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mitosis
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process of dividing cells which results in two identical copies
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cell cycle
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repeating set of events that make up the life of a cell
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Interphase
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cell prepares for division
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G1 phase
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cell growth
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S phase
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DNA is copied, (synthesis)
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G2 phase
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cell growth and preparation for division
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prophase
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-nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
-early mitotic spindle forms |
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centrosomes
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dark spots that form on opposite ends of the cell and connect spindle fibers
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centrioles
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part of the centrosomes that are only found in animals
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spindle fibers
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microtubules connecting the centromeres and are held by centrosomes
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mitotic spindle
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array of spindle fibers
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kinetochore fibers
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spindle fibers that connect to the centromeres of chromosomes
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polar fibers
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spindle fibers that extend from one centrosome to another without connnecting to the centromeres
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Metaphase
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the chromosomes move to the center of the cell
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anaphase
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sister chromatids separate and move towards opposite ends of the cell
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telophase
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-spindle fibers disassemble
-nuclear membrane forms around each of the newly forming cells |
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cytokinesis
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cell membrane divides
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cleavage furrow
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the area in an animal cell where the membrane pinches to start the separation of the cell. during cytokinesis
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cell plate
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used when beginning to separate plant cells during cytokinesis
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gametes
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haploid reproductive cells
ex-sperm and egg cells -contain 23 chromosomes |
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synapsis
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the process of pairing chromosomes up with their homologous pair
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tetrad
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a pair of homologous chromosomes
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crossing over
when does it occur? |
portions of chromatids break off and attach to the adjacent chromosome on the homologous chromosome during the prophase I of meiosis
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genetic recombination
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a new mixture of genetic material caused by crossing over and independent assortment
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independent assortment
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random separation of homologous chromosomes during anaphase I of meiosis
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spermatids
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an undeveloped sperm cell
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spermatogenesis
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formation of sperm cells
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oogenesis
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formation of egg cells
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polar bodies
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during meiosis II, one egg cell is formed. the three leftover cells are called polar bodies
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deoxyribose
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the sugar molecule part of DNA
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nitrogen-containing base
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nitrogen base(either A, T, G, or C) part of DNA
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adenine
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-one of the nitrogen bases
-pairs with thymine -is a purine |
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thymine
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-one of the nitrogen bases
-pairs with adenine -is a pyrimidine -replaced with uracil on mRNA |
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guanine
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-one of the nitrogen bases
-pairs with cytosine -is a purine |
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cytosine
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-one of the nitrogen bases
-pairs with guanine -is a pyrimidine |
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DNA
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-(deoxyribonucleic acid)
-genetic info -double helix structure -made up of a: phosphate group, nitrogen base, and deoxyribose(sugar) |
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purine
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nitrogen bases that contain two rings of carbon
-adenine and guanine |
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pyrimidine
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nitrogen bases that contain only one ring of carbon
-thymine and cytosine |
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double helix
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-structure of DNA
-ladder shape -sides of ladder made of phosphate and deoxribose -steps of ladder made of nitrogen bases -deoxyribose connects to the nitrogen bases and phosphate by covalent bonds -nitrogen bases connect to each other by weak hydrogen bonds |
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complementary bases
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-adenine with thymine
-cytosine with guanine |
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replication fork
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during replication of DNA, the two chains of DNA separate at the nitrogen bases. the place where they separate is called the replication fork
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helicase
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the enzyme that separated the two chains of DNA during DNA replication
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DNA polymerase
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the enzyme that connects to the separated chain of DNA after the helicase unzips it. It creates complementary chains
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mutation in DNA replication
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-occurs 1 in every ten thousand paired nucleotides
-change in nucleotide sequence |
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ribose
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the sugar molecule in RNA
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RNA
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-(ribonucleic acid)
-contains ribose (sugar) -uracil replaces thymine -single-stranded |
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mRNA
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-messenger RNA
-made of RNA nucleotides in a single strand -carried genetic info from the nucleus into the cytoplasm |
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tRNA
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-transfer RNA
- T-shaped -binds to amino acids |
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rRNA
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-ribosomal RNA
-make up ribsomes |
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transcription
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-process where mRNA brings genetic info from the nucleus into the cytoplasm
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genetic code
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the correlation between the nucleotide sequence and the amino acid sequence
-used when translated mRNA sequences into proteins |
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codon
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sequence of three mRNA nucleotides
-codes for an amino acid |
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start codon
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(AUG)
tells a ribosome to start translating a mRNA molecule |
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stop codon
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cause a ribosome to stop translating mRNA
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tRNA
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(transport RNA)
-transport freely-floating amino acids in the cytoplasm to the mRNA |
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anticodon
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sequence of three nucleotides on a tRNA
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ribosomes that are found floating around in the cytoplasm produce proteins that...
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are used within the cell
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ribosomes that are found attached to the endoplasmic reticulum produce proteins that...
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exported out of the cell
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What type of bond connects amino acids to each other during translation?
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peptide bond
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genetic engineering
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the application of molecular genetics for practical purposes
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DNA technology
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technology that involves genetic engineering
-used to cure diseases, treat genetic disorders, improve crops |
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restriction enzymes
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enzymes that cut DNA molecules and notices certain sequences of nucleotides and cuts in a certain place
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sticky end
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single-chain tails of DNA which is created as a result of restriction enzymes
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cloning vector
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a carrier which is used to clone a gene and transform it from one organism to another
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plasmid
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a ring of DNA found in bacteria in addition to its main chromosome
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donor gene
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a gene isolated from another organism which is put into a cloning vector
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insulin
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a protein that controls sugar metabolism
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What happens to the cloning vector after the new gene has been placed into it?
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it reproduces/infects other organisms
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genomic library
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the thousands of pieces of DNA in an organism's genome
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recombinant DNA
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DNA from two or more sources
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transgenic organism
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an organism receiving recombinant DNA
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DNA fingerprint
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a pattern of bands mad up of specific fragments from an individual's DNA
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used of DNA fingerprints
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-test to see if individuals are related
-test to see if two species are related -help solve crimes |
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RFLP analysis
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(Restriction Fragment Legnth Polymorphism)
-method for preparing DNA fingerprints |
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gel electrophoresis
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process of separating DNA fragments
-separates nucleic acids according to size and charge -DNA fragments migrate towards the positive end of the gel -(DNA is negatively charged) |
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probes
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radioactive segments of DNA that are complementary to the segments being compared. this causes only the segments being compared to be visible
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PCR
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(Polymer Chain Reaction)
-used to make copies of a small piece of DNA |
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gene therapy
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treating a genetic disorder by introducing a gene into a cell, or by correcting a gene's defect
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fuck this.
i hate finals. |
i want some chapstick.
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vaccine
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a solution that contains a harmless version of a virus or bacterium
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pathogen
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disease-carrying substance
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name the alternative way of creating vaccine
(not the traditional way) |
pathogens containing the same or similar surface proteins are the virus
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herbicides
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weed-controlling chemicals
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DNA technology & plants
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-plants made resistant to animals, weeds,ect
-trying to make plants that don't need fertilizer, used nitrogen or w/eee |
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worries about using DNA technology with plants
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-crops and their neighboring plants sometimes transmit genes to each other. this could cause a "superweed" that takes over plants.
-ethics and all that |
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law of segregation
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states that a pair of factors is separated during the formation of gametes
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strain
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pure for a trait
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P1 generation
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parent generation, 2 pure strains
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F1 generation
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offspring of P1
-all show dominant trait |
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F2 generation
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offspring of P2
-3/4 show dominant trait -1/4 show recessive trait |
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law of independent assortment
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states that alleles for different characteristics are distributed to gametes independently
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incomplete dominance
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when a heterozygous phenotype shows as a blend of the two alleles.
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codominance
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when both alleles are present in a heterozygous phenotype
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dihybrid cross
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a cross between two individuals involving two pairs traits or w/e.
ex-RyYy x RRYy |
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sex linkage
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presence of a gene on a sex chromosome
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germ cell mutation
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mutation that occurs in gametes (germ cells)
-do not affect the organism itself, but may be passed onto the offspring if that specific gamete is fertilized |
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somatic mutation
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body cell mutation
-affects organism itself |
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deletion
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loss of a piece of a chromosome
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inversion
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when a chromosome piece breaks off and attaches in reverse orientation to the same chromosome
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translocution
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when a piece of a chromosome breaks off and attaches to another chromosome
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nondisjunction
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failure of chromosomes to to separate from its homologous pair during meiosis
-leads to one gamete receiving an extra chromosome |
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point mutation
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substitution, addition, or removal of a nucleotide on a codon
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substitution
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a nucleotide is replaced with another nucleotide
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monosomy
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disease where you only have one copy of a chromosome (45 chromosomes total)
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trisomy
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having an extra chromosome
-example: down syndrome |
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polygenic trait
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a trait that is controlled by two or more genes
example: height, skin color |
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colorblindedness: where is the gene for it found?
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found on the X chromosome
-much more common in males |
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hemophilia,
muscular dystrophy: where is the gene found? |
found on the X chromosome
-much more common in males |
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sex-influenced traits
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the presence of male or female hormones influence the expression of certain human traits
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pattern of inheritance
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certain phenotypes are often repeated in a predictable pattern from one generation to the next
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single allele trait
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a trait controlled by a single allele of a gene
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