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66 Cards in this Set
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What are the two groups of hormones ? |
1. Steroid hormones: derived from cholesterol, lipid soluble; transported with proteins; diffuse into target cell to bind to inter-cellular or nuclear receptors and directly affect genes/protein synthesis 2. Amino Acid hormones: water soluble; cannot pass through the plasma membrane of cells so they must bind with membrane receptors on target cell which cause production of a second messenger to affect cellular activity **exception = thyroid hormone, which is amino acid based but can bind with inter- cellular receptors |
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What are the main endocrine glands ? |
Pineal, pituitary (posterior and anterior), thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenal; As well as endocrine cells in viscera including hypothalamus, thymus, pancreas, ovaries, testes, kidneys, stomach, liver, small intestine, skin, heart, adipose tissue, and placenta |
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What regulates hormone synthesis besides negative (& positive) feedback loops? |
1. Neural stimuli: sympathetic and parasympathetic stimulation 2. Humoral stimuli: blod composition (sensed via chemoreceptors) 3. Hormonal stimuli: via tropic hormones or tropins; typically from anterior pituitary (which is controlled by hypothalamus) |
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What hormones are produced by the anterior pituitary? What regulates their secretion? |
**They are regulated by inhibiting and releasing hormones from the hypothalamus 1. Human growth hormone: causes bones and muscle to release insulin like growth factors that induce bone growth, muscle enlargement, and protein synthesis 2. Prolactin: breast milk gland secretion 3. TSH: (thyroid stimulating hormone) stimulates thyroid follicles to produce thyroid hormones 4. ACTH: (adrenocorticotropic hormone) stmulates adrenal cortex (=corticosteroids) 5. Gonadotropins: stimulate gonads and sex glands -FSH: to produce sex cells (sperm/ova) -LH: to produce sex hormones (testosterone/estrogen/progesterone) for development of sex characteristics and pregnancy 6. Melanocyte stimulating hormone: f(x) unknown; changes body color
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What hormones are produces in the posterior pituitary? |
Nothing! It only stores oxytocin and ADH from the hypothalamus |
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What hormones are produces in the hypothalamus? |
1. Oxytocin: stimulates increase in uterine muscle contraction and force; parental care and milk "let-down"; love hormone 2. ADH: water balance regulation in the kidneys; stimulated when blood-water decreases or blood pressure low; causes decrease in urine volume and increase in arteriole pressure (therefore aka vasopressin) **alcohol/caffeine inhibit production of ADH |
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What hormones are produced by the thyroid? |
1. Thyroid hormone: T3-triiodothyronine or T4-thyroxine; via thyroid follicular cells; increases metabolic rate, therefore regulating glucose and oxygen use/ growth and heat production 2. Calcitonin: via parafollicular cells; stimulates osteoblasts and bone formation when blood calcium above optimum |
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What hormones are produced by the parathyroid glands? |
1. Parathyroid hormone: When blood calcium is below optimum, PTH stimulates osteoclasts to break down bone to release calcium and phosphates into blood; also activated vitamin D which is essential for Ca absorption in kidney and intestines; also regulates Magnesium and phosphate levels |
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What hormones are produced by the pancreas? |
** Via the islets of Langerhans 1. Insulin: produced by beta cells; aka hypoglycemic hormone; decreases blood glucose when levels are above optimum by conversion of glucose into glycogen in the liver and muscles; also increases use of glucose by cells (skeletal muscles especially); parasympathetic fibers stimulate when we are at rest 2. Glucagon: produced by alpha cells; aka hyperglycemic hormone; causes conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscles; sympathetic fibers stimulate when we are under stress **optimum blood glucose = 80mg/100ml of blood |
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What hormones are produced by the adrenal cortex? |
Corticosteroids (steroid based): 1. Mineralocorticoids: mineral concentration regulation; aldosterone is secreted when blood Na low or potassium high; causes increased absorption of Na in kidney and intestine and excretion of potassium which = increase water uptake and = increase in blood pressure; stimulated when we are under stress; also helps to regulate magnesium, bicarbonates, hydrogen, and chloride 2. Glucocorticoids: regulate glucose content; cortisol works by converting AA and FA into glucose (gluconeogenesis) when levels go below optimum; stress hormone, can lead to hyperglycemia; suppresses our immune response; stimulated by ACTH from adrenal cortex which is, itself, stimulated by CRH from the hypothalamus 3. Gonadocorticoids: male/female hormones that help regulate the development of sex organs |
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What hormones are produced by adrenal medulla? |
Catecholamines (amino acid based): 1. Epinephrine/adrenaline 2. Nor-epinephrine Both for stress response |
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What hormones are produced by the thymus? |
1. Thymosin: regulates maturation of lymphocytes (immunity WBC); becomes smaller as one ages or gets less sleep |
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What hormone is produced by the kidneys? |
EPO (erythtropoeitin): stimulated when RBC is low; stimulates bone marrow cells (hemocytoblasts) to increase the rate of RBC production |
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What hormone is produced by the pineal gland? |
Melatonin for regulation of sleep wake cycles; light sensitive; sleep important for stress management which affects other hormones (cortisol, etc.) |
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What hormones are produced by the sex glands? |
Testes produce testosterone: for development of male sex characteristics and help with regulation of sperm production Ovaries produce estrogen: for development of female characteristics, as well as progesterone: for pregnancy and implantation of egg |
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What is blood? |
Blood plasma (55%): Consists of mostly water (91.5%) along with proteins (7%) and other solutes (1.5%; includes electrolytes, nutrients, gases, waste products, regulatory substances) Formed elements/ Hematocrit (45%): Consists of RBCs, WBCs (neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils), and blood platelets |
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What are the plasma proteins? |
Albumin (54%): maintain osmotic pressure by increasing water retention capacity of blood; produced by the liver Globulins: soluble proteins, like antibodies of B-Lymphocytes Fibrinogen: soluble protein which is converted to insoluble fibrin during blood clotting |
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Explain Red Blood Cells: |
Biconcave; anucleate; contain hemoglobin, a red pigment molecule for oxygen and carbon dioxide transport; functional for 120 days then components are broken down and recycled in the spleen and liver; about 2 million die and reborn/ second |
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What are RBCs broken down into? |
Mainly occurs in spleen and also in liver; globin from Hb is broken down into amino acids and re-used; iron from Hb is combined with a protein to form ferritin to store iron in liver, ferritin is transported to the red bone marrow as transferritin; the rest is converted to biliverdin and then into bilirubin, which is used by the liver to help create bile for lipid metabolism (bilirubin eventually becomes stercobilin = brown poo pigment) |
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How does erythropoeisis work? |
Decrease in oxygen delivery to tissues results in hypoxia and stimulates kidneys to produce erythropoeitin which induces hemocytoblasts to inititate RBC production; series of cell divisions produced reticulocytes which mature into RBCs after htey lose their mitochondria and nucleus; iron and vitamin B6 (folic acid) and B12 (cobalamine) are essential for RBC production |
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What are WBCs? |
Aka leukocytes, complete cells in blood capable of independent movement and phagocytosis; two groups = granulocytes and agranulocytes; length of life varies from days to years |
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What are granulocytes? |
Type of WBC with granules to pick up different strains; include... Neutrophils: (60-70% of WBCs) aka polys,attack bacterial pathogens (increase during infection) Eosinophils: (2-4%) attack large parasites like hook worms and tape worms Basophils: (<1%) release histamine, an inflammatory agent; and heparin, a blood anti-coagulant |
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What are agranulocytes? |
Type of WBC with no granules in cytoplasm, include... Lymphocytes (20-25% of WBCs) are concentrated in lymph nodes and organs; responsible for antigen-antibody response for long-term immunity, include... -B-lymphocytes develop into plasma cells and produce antibodies/ immunoglobins; agglutinate pathogens and destroy them; aka antibody-mediatetd immune response (AMI); maturation happens in the red bone marrow -T-lymphocytes destroy tumor cells and virus-infected cells; aka cell meditated immune response (CMI); maturaion occurs in th thymus -Can become "memory cells" that prevent secondary infection -Natural killer cells: target a variety of infectious agents and tumor cells Monocytes: largest WBC; soak up water and become large wandering macrophages that move through tissue fluids and pick up microbes and cellular debris via phagocytosis; alert lymphocytes of infections to initiate immune response |
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What is a blood platelet? |
Cell fragments formed from large megakaryocytes in red bone marrow; active for 5-9 days, prevent blood loss by initiating blood clotting aka hemostasis |
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Describe the process of hemostasis: |
3 stages.... Vascular spasm: spontaneous constriction of smooth muscle at the ends of a blood vessel Platelet plug formation: platelets stick to the exposed connective tissue on the wall of the damaged vessel, keep building to form a plug via positive feedback Blood clotting: Platelet plug and liver release procoagulants/clotitng factors which activate prothrombin to thrombin in blood (with help of calcium and vitamin K); thrombin then converts fibrinogen into fibrin which traps RBCs and platelets in blood to form a clot and seal the break in the blood vessel -Once sealed clot retracts, pulling broken vessel together; platelets release a growth factor and stimulates fibroblasts; platelets release plasmin which dissolves the blood clot via fibrinolysis |
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What are the blood groups? |
Defined by antigen type of RBC plasma membrane... Type A: Antigen A and plasma has anti-B antibodies Type B: Aintigen B and plasma has anti-A anibodies Type AB: Antigen A & B and plasma has no antibodies Type O: No antigen and plasma has anti-A & B antibodies Wrong transfusion can = accumulation of hemoglobin in kidney = kidney failure and death |
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Describe cardiac muscle fiber: |
Striated, thick, short, interconnected via intercalated discs; discs have gap junctions that allow electrical signals to pass from one cardiac fiber to another, allowing the myocardium to function as one unit; has a longer refractory period or interval between potentials to prevent tetanic contractions |
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What are the different heart valves? |
They regulate the one way blood flow of heart & prevent back flow and are controlled by blood pressure gradients Atrioventricular valve: (AV) include bicuspid on left side and tricuspid on right; operate during ventricular systole Semilunar valve: (SV) include aortic on left and pulmonary on right; operate during ventricular diastole |
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Explain the main units of the heart's conduction system
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SA node: pace maker, stimulate atrial contraction; in right atrium
AV node: conducts signals to AV bundle; in right atrium near tricuspid valve AV bundle: conducts signals from AV bundle to left and right bundle branches; in inter-ventricular septum Bundle branches: conducts signals from from AV bundle down to purknje fibers; in inter-ventricular septum Purknje fibers: carry electrical signals to outer tissue within ventricle walls |
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Explain what happens during P wave, QRS wave, and the T wave
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P wave: This is where the atria contract/are depolarized while the ventricles are relaxed
QRS wave: The atria start repolarizing, ventricles are depolarizing, ventricles contract, “Lub” sound takes place, meaning the bicuspid and tricuspid valve are closing. T wave: The ventricles are repolarized and relaxed, “Dubb” sound takes place, the semilunar valves are closing at this point. |
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Explain cardiac output: |
The volume of blood pumped out by one ventricle in one minute; = stroke volume X heart rate (75 avg. at rest) SV: volume of blood ejected by one ventricle during systole, on avg. = 70ml avg. |
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What regulates stroke volume and how? |
Stretch of cardiac fibers: if blood volume in ventricle increases as during exercise, then muscles are stretched more and must contract harder; aka Frank-Starling's Law which says SV is proportional to stretch of vent. myocardium Cardiac fiber contraction force: Increased by (positive inotropic factors) norepinephrine from symp. nerve fibers, epinephrine from adrenal medulla, increase in calcium ions above normal, and drug digitalis; decreased by (negative inotropic factorss) potassium and hydrogen Increase in back pressure: caused by increase in diastolic pressure of aorta or pulmonary trunk; occurs during atherosclerosis when arteries are less elastic- can lead to chronic hypertension |
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How does the ANS regulate heart rate? |
ANS: Medulla oblongata has cardiovascular center (CV) with acceleratory (CAC) and inhibitory (CIC) center; stress = CAC stimulate atria/ventr. contraction via sympathetic nerve fibers and norepinephrine = increase in rate/force of myocardium contraction; at rest = CIC decrease rate and fore of myocardium via vagus nerve/ parasympathetic nerve fibers and ACh |
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How is heart rate regulated (not including ANS)? |
Typically the SA node regulates HR but can be altered by...
Pressure receptors in the wall of aorta/carotid artery; when pressure increases the baroreceptors signal CV to activate CIC Hormones epinephrine, norepinephrine (adrenal medulla) and thyroxin (thyroid) increase rate/force of myocardium contraction Ions in blood/ bodily fluid: high amounts of potassium in blood lowers HR/ contraction force aka hyperkalemia; high amounts of calcium in blood increase HR/contraction force aka hypercalcemia Temperature up = increases HR Young and old age = increased HR Exercise increases CO; athlete will have higher SV and therefore at rest his HR will be lower |
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Diabetes mellitus |
Hyposecretion of insulin; leads to sugar urine; polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia; can lead to ketosis or ketoacidosis |
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Diabetes insipidus |
Hyposecretion of ADH; leads to a large volume of urine and causes intense thirst; alcohol has similar effect on the body |
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Grave's disease |
Hyperthyroidism in adults; auto-immune disorder; high metabolism = protein loss in muscles and bones, weight loss, irregular heart beat and bulging eyes |
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Cushing's syndrome |
Excess cortisol (stress hormone); = hyperglycemia, hypertension, and swollen moon-face |
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Pulmonary congestion |
Failure of left side of the heart; fluid leaks into lungs |
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Tachycardia |
Increased HR; over 100 beats/minute |
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Congestive heart failure |
Caused by coronary atherosclerosis; myocardial infraction, chronic hypertension, dilated cardiomyopathy |
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Chronic hypertension |
High BP due to increased peripheral resistance to blood flow; often caused by obesity, can = heart failure, renal failure, stroke; aka silent killer |
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Aneurysm |
Gradual weakening of the wall of an artery, caused by chronic hypertension; affected artery usually ruptures in abs, kidney, or brain |
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Hemophilia |
Hereditary bleeding disorder where blood fails to clot |
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Leukemia |
Abnormal multiplication of WBCs in the red bone marrow; bone marrow gets filled with useless WBCs |
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Coronary thrombosis |
Thrombus (blood clot) block coronary blood vessel; leads to heart failure |
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Systemic (peripheral) congestion |
Right side of the heart fails to f(x) properly; fluids accumulate in body tissue (edema) |
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Bradycardia |
Decreased rate of heart beat; 60/minute or less; highly athletic people may have this and be healthy |
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Atherosclerosis |
Fatty tissue build in artery walls (mainly cholesterol); also known as coronary artery disease (CAD) |
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Arteriosclerosis |
Hardening of artery wall that follows atherosclerosis; due to scar tissue build up and calcium deposits |
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Addison's disease |
Hyposecretion of adrenal cortex; loss of weight, severe dehydration, hypotension |
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Myocardial infarction |
Death of heart muscle cells due to oxygen deficiency |
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Goiter (simple/endemic) |
Iodine deficiency and thyroid enlargement |
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You are so strong! |
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You are so loving! |
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Explain the vasomotor center of the medulla oblongata, what does it do? |
Vasoconstriction: narrowing of lumen of blood vessels due to smooth muscle constriction under sympathetic stimulation; increases systemic blood pressure; vasoconstrictors = angiotensin Vasodilation: widening of lumen of blood vessel due to lack of symp. stimulation or presence of nitric oxide or lactic acid; vasodilators = histamine |
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Compare Arteries and Veins |
Arteries: take blood away from heart; have lots of elastic tissue; blood flow due to systolic pressure; arteries>arterioles>capillaries; carry oxygenated blood (excluding pulmonary trunk/artery) Veins: take blood toward heart; have thicker outer layer; blood flow due to skeletal muscle pump aided by pocket valves; capillaries>venules>veins; carry deoxygenated blood (except pulmonary vein) |
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Capillaries |
Connect arterioles to venules; one layer of endothelial cells allow movement of molecules in/out of tube; forms networks, blood flow regulated by pre-capillary sphincters; in first half of capillary blood pressure high = diffusion out aka filtration; declines in later half = movement of molecules into capillary network aka re-absorption; normally 85% reabsorbed, rest is returned by lymphatics |
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Blood pressure |
Pressure exerted by blood on wall of vessels caused by ventricular systole; healthy = 120/80 mHg (120=systolic pressure in aorta;80=diastolic); in capillaries = 20mmHg and i veins = 0mmHg |
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What increases vascular resistance? |
Vascular resistance increases BP Diameter of blood vessels (vasodilation/constriction) Blood viscosity; thick blood = more pressure Length of vessels; longer = more resistance |
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What regulates blood pressure/flow? |
CV center of the medulla oblongata Baroreceptors in aorta/carotid arteries; if BP goes down then signals to CV center = slow which initiates symp. nerve fibers and increase HR = increased CO and blood pressure (& v.v.) Vasomotor center of medulla oblongata; vasodilation/constriction of arterioles Hormones: epinephrine, norepinephrine, aldosterone, ADH, ANP, angiotensin |
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Describe hepatic portal circulation |
A vein that carries blood from one capillary network to another is a portal vein The hepatic vein drains blood from digestive organs into the liver to regulate the amount of nutrients in the blood (glucose, amino acids) and then the blood is sent to the inferior vena cava through hepatic veins |
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Describe lymph nodes |
On lymph vessels in axillary/groin area; lymph enters and is filtered as it passes through the node, all cellular debris and microbes in the lymph are trapped in the reticular tisssue where they are removed by macrophages via phagocytosis; B and T-lymphocytes are concentrated here & in lymphoid organs) for immune response |
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What are the lymphoid organs? |
Spleen: largest; white pulp with lymphocytes and macrophages and red pulp with old RBCs Thymus: hormone thymosine here controls maturation of T-lymphocytes from red bone marrow Tonsils: palatine, pharyngeal, and lingual Payer's Patches: Lymph node group in wall of ilium; protect body from harmful microbes that may enter through the digestive tube |
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Describe the body's immune response system (first and second line of defense) |
First: skin, sebum, sweat, and mucous membranes Second: Antimicrobial substances like interferon, complement proteins, and anti-microbial proteins destroy microbes; macrophage/natural killer cells -inflammatory response; histamine important (vasodilation/fluid leakage); non-specific response helps prevent pathogen from spreading; fever: elevated temperature enhances phagocytosis and inhibits the growth of microbes; also non-specific |
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Describe adaptive immunity |
A specific immune response; T and B-lymphocytes are crucial in providing long-term defense; aka antigen-antibody responses -B-lymphocytes = plasma cells which produce immunoglobulins which are soluble proteins aka antibodies; antibodies (specific to an antigen on a microbe) agglutinate the microbe in the blood plasma, inactivate them, then macrophages remove them from the blood; aka humoral immunity -T-lymphocytes destroy virus infected and tumor cells -T and B cells can leave behind memory cells which have immunological memory of a specific infection = prevent secondary infection |
