Bio 2 Exam 1

Front 1

What is
taxonomy?

Back 1

field of biology concerned with classifying organisms and viruses; accepted pattern is
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
(do kings play chess on fine green sand)

Front 2

what is systematics?

Back 2

the reconstruction and study of evolutionary relationships (phylogenies)

Front 3

what is phylogeny?

Back 3

the evolutionary history of an organism, including which species are closely related and in what order related species evolved; often represented in the form or an evolutionary tree that are constructed based on morphological analysis, DNA sequences, and geographical information

Front 4

what are the 3 Domains?

Back 4

Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria

Front 5

what are the 3 Kingdoms of the Eukarya Domain?

Back 5

Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

Front 6

small, single celled, cell wall, no nucleus, can live in extreme conditions, what domain?

Back 6

Archaea

Front 7

what domain have the greatest # niches

Back 7

Bacteria

Front 8

what is protista made up of?

Back 8

polyphyletic group or organisms that do not fit within Animalia, Plantae, or Fungi

Front 9

name 3 facts of Fungi

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1. has a cell wall, 2. external digestion, and 3. lacking photosynthesis capability

Front 10

what is convergent evolution?

Back 10

the independent development of similar structures in organisms that are not directly related; often found in organisms living in similar environments

Front 11

what is derived character?

Back 11

a characteristic used in taxonomic analysis representing a departure from the primitive (ancestor)

Front 12

what is derived character in cladistics?

Back 12

characteristics between the branch points of a cladogram that are shared by all organisms above the branch point and are NOT present in any below it

Front 13

WHAT IS cladistics?

Back 13

a taxonomic technique used for creating hierarchies or organisms that represent true phylogenetic relationship and descent

Front 14

what is ancestral characteristics?

Back 14

characteristics that have arisen in organisms as a result of common evolutionary descent

Front 15

in cladistics, to determine whether character states are ancestral or derived we use...

Back 15

polarize

Front 16

In cladistics, one of two or more distinguishable forms of a character, such as the presence or absence of teeth in amniote vertebrates

Back 16

character state

Front 17

what is cladogram and what are the steps to construct 1.

Back 17

a graphical representation of POSSIBLE evolutionary relationships, based on polarization of characters, in which taxa are placed at the tips, not at the branch points, of the phylogenetic tree and shared, derived characteristics common to taxa above the branch point are placed at the branch point.
1. gather data on characters to be used,
2. establish the character states (teeth),
3. polarize the characters (ancestral or derived)
4. select an outgroup (closely related to but not a member)
5. apply principle of parsimony (hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions)

Front 18

what is a group containing all descendants of a common ancestor

Back 18

clade

Front 19

in systematics, a derived character that is shared by clade members; best mechanism to analyze the evolutionary sequence in the development of a complex character

Back 19

synapomorphy (I remember this by saying the derived (new) characters are synapy...synapomorphy)

Front 20

plesiomorphy

Back 20

in cladistics, another term for an ancestral character state

Front 21

n cladistics, what is another term for a shared ancestral/primitive or outgroup character state

Back 21

symplesiomorphy (I remember this by saying the primitive trait is the most symplesiomorphy)

Front 22

what is homoplasy?

Back 22

in cladistics, a shared character state that has not been inherited from a common ancestor exhibiting that state; may result from convergent evolution or evolutionary reversal. The wings of birds and of bats, which are convergent

Front 23

principle state that scientists should favor the hypothesis that requires the fewest assumptions; simplest phylogenetic tree should be chosen

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principle of parsimony

Front 24

what is monophyletic?

Back 24

in phylogenetic classification, a group that includes the most recent common ancestor of the group AND ALL its descendants. A clade is a monophyletic group.

Front 25

what is paraphyletic?

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in phylogenetic classification, a group that includes the most recent common ancestor of the group, BUT NOT all its descendants

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what is polyphyletic?

Back 26

in phylogenetic classification, a group that does NOT INCLUDE the most recent common ancestor of all members of the group

Front 27

the concept that defines species as groups of populations that have the potential to interbreed and that are reproductively isolated from other group

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biological species concept (BSC)

Front 28

the concept that defines species on the basis of their phylogenetic relationships

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phylogenetic species concept (PSC)

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what is reproductive isolation?

Back 29

not being able to mate outside one's group

Front 30

what is character displacement?

Back 30

when morphological difference is accentuated between organisms because of resource competition

Front 31

An ______ is an organism that is considered not to be part of the group in question, but is closely related to the group.

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outgroup

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based on the idea of neutral mutations not being acted on by natural selections and occurring at a constant rate; consequently, in evolutionary theory, the methodt has as its basis is the rate of evolution of a molecule is constant through TIME and can be tracked

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molecular clock

Front 33

WHAT IS horizontal gene transfer?

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transfer of genes between different species, both prokaryotic or eukaryotic

Front 34

-age of ~4.5by
-early reducing atmosphere including carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen sulfide, methane, no oxygen

Back 34

ancient earth

Front 35

oldest microfossils

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prokaryotes, emerging ~3.5 by a Eukaryotic cells were not until ~2.1 bya & multicellular organisms not until ~700 mya

Front 36

included assembling a reducing atmosphere with H2, CH4, NH3, and H2S, placing this atmosphere over liquid water, increasing the temperature of the gases, and providing energy with electrical spark discharges which produced amino acid glycine, hydrogen cyanide, and formaldehyde

Back 36

Miller Urey experiment

Front 37

what would happen if If the atmosphere had been an oxidizing one?

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life may never have arisen because oxygen is corrosive and tends to strip off electrons there by destroying organic compounds...the reducing atmosphere promoted buildup of organic compounds

Front 38

what is the probable chemical PATHWAY to origin of life

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C, H, O, N → CH4 and NH3 → amino acid → proteins

Front 39

what does cellular organization, sensitivity, growth, development, reproduction, regulation, homeostasis, and heredity describe?

Back 39

properties of life

Front 40

what is the result of mutation, sexual reproduction, multicellularity, horizontal gene transfer, and endosymbiosis

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The diversity of life

Front 41

catalysis

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can be carried out by enzymes and RNA acting as a ribozyme

Front 42

Bacteria and Archaebacteria Domains

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contain no eukaryotes (Archea and eukaryotes are more closely related to each other than to bacteria.)

Front 43

results from sexual reproduction, endosymbiosis, horizontal gene transfer, and mutation

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life's diversity

Front 44

Eukaryotic cells acquired mitochondria (purple and chloroplasts (from cyanobacteria) through what?

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endosymbiosis

Front 45

deep-sea vent hypothesis is based on what?

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formation of prebiotic organic molecules resulting from temperature gradients of the cold ocean water mixing with hot water and hot gaseous substances released from the vents

Front 46

formation of prebiotic organic molecules resulting from early Earth being bombarded by carbonaceous chondritic meteorites carrying carbon to the early earth

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ET hypothesis

Front 47

prebiotic synthesis of polymers not possible in aqueous solutions but will form on clay surface

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polymerization of prebiotic organic molecules

Front 48

characteristics of protobionts

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- internal polymers contained information
-bounday membrane separating internal from external environments
- protobionts capable of self-replication

Front 49

what is suggested to be first macromolecule found in protobionts

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RNA ( RNA would have been chemically selected for because it can act as an enzyme (ribozyme) and can self-replicate)

Front 50

vesicle surrounded by a lipid layer - may have formed the hollow spheres of phospholipids

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liposomes (lipospheres)

Front 51

Droplets that form spontaneously from the association of charged polymers; tend to absorb and incorporate substances from environment so semipermeable membrane surrounding first protocell could have been very similar

Back 51

coacervates

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what is found in nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts

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DNA

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what is radioisotope dating

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Fossils can be dated using a measured amount of a given isotope as well as the amount of isotope (decay product) produced when the isotope decays

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what is Half-life?

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length of time required for exactly one-half of original isotope to decay

Front 55

If you started with 10g of Carbon-14, in 5730 years you would have what ?

Back 55

.5g of Carbon-14 and .5g of Nitrogen-14

Front 56

probably anaerobic, heterotrophic, prokaryotic and arose during Archean Eon

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earliest cells

Front 57

Protocells would have been present before the development of a true cell but...

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would have had specific characteristics such as a lipid and protein membrane surrounding it and would have contained a biochemical pathway for energy metabolism.

Front 58

appearance of Hominids

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Tertiary Period

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endosymbiosis

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prokaryotic cells being engulfed and becoming internal symbionts within an early eukaryotic cell

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rapid increase in major animal groups' diversity; oxygen levels support larger animals

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Cambrian Explosion

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appear in fossil record Ordovician Period

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land plants

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reptiles

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appear during Carboniferous Period

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existed from the Triassic to the end of the Cretaceous

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Dinosaurs

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mammals

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arose from mammal-like reptiles in the Triassic but remained small and insignificant while dinosaurs dominated

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have occurred about 4 or 5 times in fossil record, due in some cases to catastrophic changes

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mass extinctions

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suitable organisms a virus is capable of infecting

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host range

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targeting of specific range of cells within suitable organism

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tissue tropism

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genetic alteration of a cell's genome by the introduction of foreign DNA

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transformation

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what is prions?

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a class of infectious proteins with no associated nucleic acid; causes Mad-cow disease

Front 70

a virus that after being integrated into the host cell chromosomes, it does not begin replicating immediately; HIV virus is an example of such

Back 70

latent virus

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what has a glycoprotein on its surface, called gp120, that fits a cell-surface marker protein called CD4 on the surfaces of the immune system cells called macrophages and T cells; this virus is closely related a chimpanzee virus

Back 71

HIV infection

Front 72

viruses that can infect bacteria

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phages

Front 73

what is an envelope?

Back 73

a layer of lipoprotein and glycoprotein that covers the outer surface of some viruses

Front 74

causes lysis of their hosts (lytic)

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virulent virus

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temperate virus

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becomes established as stable parts of the host cell genome (lysogenic)

Front 76

virus in a new host with a lethality rate in excess of 50%; example is Ebola virus; these viruses are able to jump from one species to another; hantavirus originates in deer mice and causes hemorrhagic-type fever; SARS is completely new form of corona virus

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emerging virus

Front 77

they are tiny, naked molecules of RNA a few hundred nucleotides long whose sequence resembles intron sequences in rRNA genes; they are causative agents of plant diseases

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viroids

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what cycle integration and stabilizing of viral genes into the host cell's genome

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lysogenic cycle

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host cell lyses, releasing many viral particles

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lytic cycle

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the switch from a lysogenic prophage to a lytic cycle

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induction

Front 81

what causes cancer?

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may be caused by viruses through triggering the expression of cancer-causing genes present in the genome

Front 82

what is coronaviruses?

Back 82

fall into 3 groups based on their surface proteins

Front 83

parasitic viral DNA that has been integrated into the chromosome of its bacterial host

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prophage

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influenza virus

Back 84

3 major types of flu virus (A< B< and C), only Type A can occur in human, other mammals, and birds; the flue subtype is determined by the kinds of proteins representing the H and N protein spikes making up the capsid of the virus; different strains of the virus requires different vaccines; genetic recombination is primarily responsible for the high diversity in strains; genetic recombination between flu strains from different species is common

Front 85

virus is able to hide from host's immune system by integrating itself into the host cell's genome and not producing new viruses...e.g., chickenpox may be followed, years later, with shingles with both the result of the same viral infection

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latent viral infection

Front 86

spans from the point of phage adsorption to the point at which the first phage progeny have matured with an infected cell

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eclipse period

Front 87

what is prion?

Back 87

misshapen protein agents that may convert other proteins in the cell to also become these agents

Front 88

entry into hose because portions of capsid adhere to specific receptor on host Cell's outer surface...viral nucleic acid enter hose cell and codes for protein units inside capsid...takes over metabolic machinery of host cell

Back 88

viral reproduction

Front 89

capsid: outer layer composed of protein subunits; protein on surface can interact with a protein on the surface of the host cell
nucleic acid core: inner most portion is made of DNA or RNA

envelope: possessed by some viruses; are lipid bilayers surrounding virus capsid

spike: glycoproteins that project from some enveloped viruses allowing for attachment of the virus to the targeted host cell

Back 89

virus structure (smaller than bacteria)

Front 90

what is a capsid?

Back 90

outer layer composed of protein subunits; protein on surface can interact with a protein on the surface of the host cell

Front 91

what is the core of a nucleic acid?

Back 91

inner most portion is made of DNA or RNA

Front 92

what is spike?

Back 92

glycoproteins that project from some enveloped viruses allowing for attachment of the virus to the targeted host cell

Front 93

what are Viruses?

Back 93

obligate acellular parasites that do not themselves possess a cell. They are, essentially, chemical complexes of RNA or DNA protected by protein. A virus particle can also be referred to as a virion.

Front 94

what is based on sequencing of proteins, DNA and RNA

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prokaryote classification

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prokaryote facts

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1) oldest organisms on Earth with fossils ~3.5 billion years old
2) structurally simplest organisms
3) most abundant life forms on earth
4) lack a discrete nucleus and other organelles or cell inclusions

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cyanobacteria

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group of bacteria that produced oxygen and changed the Earth's atmosphere from an anoxic one to one rich in oxygen

Front 97

how do prokaryotes differing from eukaryotes

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cell size, multicellularity, chromosomes, organelles, reproduction

Front 98

bacteria differing from Achaea

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1. cell wall composition 2. plasma membrane make-up 3. DNA replication 4. gene expression

Front 99

true or false: Do Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes both have ribosomes?

Back 99

true

Front 100

T or F: Archaea are able to live in the most extreme environments.

Back 100

True

Front 101

prokaryote structure (bacteria)

Back 101

have cell walls consisting of a network of polysaccharides connected by cross links of polypeptides (peptidoglycan)
pili - hairlike structures that occur on the cells of some gram-negative prokaryotes...important in adhesion; specific form has role in conjugation

flagella - used for movement

have enzymes used for cellular respiration attached to cell membrane

have 3 shapes (due to cell walls): bacillus, coccus, and spirillum

Front 102

occurs through conjugation (depends on presence of conjugative plasmids when genes are transferred through rigid, tubular sex pili), transduction (occurs when viruses (bacteriophage) package host DNA and transfer it upon subsequent infection), transformation (bacterial cells pick up free pieces of DNA from the medium-pieces that were released from dead bacteria), and exchange of R plasmids (plasmids are different from bacterial chromosomes in that plasmids have few genes, bacterial chromosome have many)

Back 102

exchange of genetic material via horizontal transfer

Front 103

gram-positive Vs gram-negative

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positive bacteria have a thicker peptidoglycan wall with small amounts of teichoic and lipoteichoic acid and will stain a purple color...
gram-negative contain lipopolysaccharides, less peptidoglycan and no acids and do not retain the purple-colored dye; differences in cell's wall determines outcome of the Gram stain
lipopolysaccharides in the outer membrane of certain bacteria make them more resistant to penicillin

Front 104

found in the lower intestine of warm blooded animals; 5000 genes, help host by producing vitamin K2

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E. coli

Front 105

what are endospores?

Back 105

thick-walled structures that contain chromosome and small amount of cytoplasm...these are formed in response to environmental stress (e.g., low nutrients)

Front 106

what is an example of a diazotrophs (nitrogen fixing bacteria)...only organisms (bacteria group) capable of taking gaseous nitrogen and combining it with hydrogen to make ammonia

Back 106

Rhizobium

Front 107

this pathway begins with atmospheric nitrogen ( Dinitrogen; unusable by plants in this form because of strength of N-N triple bond), bacterial nitrogenase(enzyme that catalyzes the reactions); ammonia; conversion by plants or algae; synthesis of proteins

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nitrogen fixation and use

Front 108

what is binary fission?

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reproductive process that produces identical cells by simple splitting

Front 109

what is nucleoid region

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area where prokaryotic DNA is found (no membrane)

Front 110

obligate aerobes require what?

Back 110

requires oxygen

Front 111

facultative aerobes

Back 111

can use oxygen or not

Front 112

obligate anaerobe

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organisms poisoned by oxygen

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aerotolerent anaerobes

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do not use oxygen but can survive exposure to it

Front 114

two kinds of organisms living together in ways beneficial to both is a....

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mutualism

Front 115

prokaryotic metabolism

Back 115

1. photoautotrophs carry out photosynthesis (cyanobacteria use chlorophyll a)
2. chemolithoautotrophs - energy through oxidizing inorganic substances (nitrifiers oxidize ammonia or nitrite to obtain energy, producing nitrate that is taken up by plants)

3. photoheterotrophs - purple and green nonsulfur bacteria use light as energy source and carbon from organic molecules

4. chemoheterotrophs - obtain both carbon atoms and energy from organic molecules (humans)

Front 116

Kingdom includes all eukaryotes (such as protozoa, algae, water molds, slime molds, etc) except green plants, animals and fungi (allows them to be classified into one kingdom)....most diverse of four eukaryotic kingdoms, not monophyletic ( means that all protists are not more closely related to each other than they are to some other kinds of organisms); majority reproduce asexually most of the time, but under stress conditions will reproduce sexually

Back 116

Protists

Front 117

why Algae are not considered plants ?

Back 117

because they lack plant structures such as roots

Front 118

have disk-shaped motochondrial cristae

have kinetoplasts

have glycolysis in the peroxisomes

have a protenacious pellicle (interlocking proteins strips) within plasma membrane

2 flagella, different lengths (no cilia)

Back 118

Euglenozoa

Front 119

pseudopodia (amoeboids)

Back 119

movement and feeding

Front 120

protective outer covering on dormant cell

Back 120

cyst

Front 121

trichocyst

Back 121

defense and capture of prey

Front 122

pyrenoid

Back 122

specialized area in algae for CO2 fixation and production of starch

Front 123

propel the organism, collect food, and propel reproductive cells

Back 123

flagella (zooflagellates)

Front 124

propulsion and feeding

Back 124

cilia (ciliates)

Front 125

protistan cysts

Back 125

may arise from sexual or asexual reproduction; facilitate spread of pathogens from one host to another and consumption can lead to human health problems

Front 126

protistan nutrition

Back 126

phagotropic, osmotrophic, autotrophic, mixotrophic

Front 127

slimy or hard protective coverings, toxins, sharp projectiles, bioluminescence, and/or spines

Back 127

protistan defense mechanisms

Front 128

phagocytosis

Back 128

the capture of food particles by a cell

Front 129

origin of both chloroplasts and mitochondria

Back 129

endosymbiosis

Front 130

secondary endosymbiosis

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A host cell ingests another cell already containing a primary symbiont.

Front 131

marine multicellular protists including the larger brown algae are unique in that they have hairy flagella

Back 131

stramenopiles

Front 132

not considered plants because lack plant structures such as roots or xylem

Back 132

algae

Front 133

choanoflagellates

Back 133

filter bacterial food from the water through the collars on the cells; structure similar to one on sponges

Front 134

Choanoflagellates are the group of protists most closely related to?

Back 134

animals, including humans

Front 135

belong with non-green algae; photosynthetic; unicellular; unique double shells made of opaline silica; some move using raphes which are lined with vibrating fibrils

Back 135

diatoms

Front 136

conjugation

Back 136

exchange of genetic material in ciliates

Front 137

red tides

Back 137

caused by dinoflagellates, responsible for massive fish kills

Front 138

resemble tiny snails; have shells called tests composed of organic materials reinforced with grains of inorganic matter; their tests help make up many limestone deposits including the White Cliffs of Dover

Back 138

foraminiferans

Front 139

zooflagellates that have a role in parasitism leading to serious human diseases such as African sleeping sickness and chagas disease

Back 139

kinetoplastids

Front 140

have both cellular and acellular (plasmodial) form with multiple nuclei; cellular slime molds are able to aggregate under times of stress

Back 140

slime molds

Front 141

- have a common characteristic of presence of flattered vesicles called alveoli that are stacked in a layer below plasma membranes...similar function to Golgi bodies
- include Apicomplexa, a medically important group of parasites, one of which is Plasmodium falciparum, the malaria agent
Ciliates

Back 141

Alveolata

Front 142

malaria

Back 142

disease caused by mosquito vector and Plasmodium parasite which belongs to the sporozoans group

Front 143

believed to be immediate ancestors of plants

Back 143

charophyceans

Front 144

phycobilins

Back 144

red pigments that give red algae their characteristic color

Front 145

cellular slime molds

Back 145

unicellular and amoeba like but will aggregate under times of stress to form slug and will then form a spore-forming body called a sorocarp where amoebas become encysted as spores

Front 146

amoebae

Back 146

move by pseudopodia extension (lack flagella)

Front 147

Plasmodium falciparum

Back 147

protistan parasite carried by mosquitoes causes malaria

Front 148

Viridiplantae or Plantae

Back 148

Kingdom of 'green plants'; arose from a charophycean (green algae)

Front 149

charophytes (green algae)

Back 149

predecessor of terrestrial plants; display a zygotic life cycle with a one cell diploid zygote while bryophytes and other plants exhibit a sporic life cycle with alternation of generations

Front 150

haplodiplontic cycle

Back 150

having multicellular haploid (gametophyte) and multicellular diploid (sporophyte) stages, unlike diplontic (humans) in which only the diploid stage is multicellular

Front 151

what is gametophyte

Back 151

production of gamete and sporophyte is production of the spore

Front 152

the haploid or diploid gametophyte is the dominant generation in mosses and other bryophytes. Sporophytes are generally smaller or bigger and depend on the gametophyte for water and nutrients.

Back 152

haploid, smaller

Front 153

plant success on land

Back 153

due to specialized roots, stems, specialized reproductive features, and increased area for photosynthesis in the leaves

Front 154

Land plants evolved from

Back 154

freshwater algae

Front 155

The Charophyta are a sister clade to all the land plants. The Tracheophytes include all the land plants except for the sister clade of what ?

Back 155

Bryophytes (liverworts, mosses, hornworts).

Front 156

A tracheid (where term Tracheophytes is derived) is a specialized?

Back 156

vascular cell

Front 157

water conservation methods

Back 157

waxy cuticle, spores, stomata (mouth shaped openings which allow water to diffuse out at the same time gas diffusion into an out of the plant is occurring), tracheids (specialized vascular cells that facilitate the transport of water and minerals)

Front 158

adaptation for more effective water dispersal within plants

Back 158

vascular systems

Front 159

earliest land plants appeared ~500mya;

vascular plants - ~430 mya

seed plants - ~365mya

Back 159

fossil record

Front 160

seed production does not require ______ as a medium for sperm transport.

Back 160

water

Front 161

1st successful land plants

Back 161

liverworts & hornworts
Bryophytes, include liverworts, hornworts, and mosses, are non-vascular plants.

Front 162

have primitive conducting systems; moss leaves and true leaves both have chlorophyll a and b; although land plants, are still tied to water because of their flagellated sperm produced in antheridia

the female gamete (produced in archegonia) of mosses is haploid, has no flagella, is produced by gametophyte generation, and is larger than male gamete

Back 162

mosses

Front 163

protective covering on spores

Back 163

sporopollenin

Front 164

primary growth

Back 164

cell division at tips of stems and shoots Early vascular plants grew only by this method.

Front 165

vascular plants

Back 165

have tallest living specimens

Front 166

plant (phyla Pterophyta) releases haploid spores during sporophyte (large plant/ dominant stage in life cycle) generation --> gametophytes; comparisons between mosses and ferns is that both kinds of plants have flagellated sperm that have to swim to reach female gamete and both have wind dispersal of spores. But the sporophyte generation is much larger than the gametophyte generation in ferns yet is smaller than the gametophyte generation in mosses and spores are produced in capsules on stalks in mosses but in small structure called sori on the underside of leaves in ferns.

Back 166

ferns

Front 167

name 2 facts about fern.

Back 167

a seedless vascular plant, requires water for fertilization.

Front 168

environmental effects of burning of plant related products

Back 168

burning peat, wood, coal, and petroleum release the carbon dioxide that plants removed and stored in tissue and increases in CO2 triggers temperature rise by retaining solar heat

Front 169

pollen

Back 169

male gametophytes

Front 170

first seed plants; includes Coniferophyta, Ginkgophyta, Cycadophyta, and Gnetophyta; produce "naked" seeds since they are not enclosed in fruit

Back 170

gymnosperms

Front 171

cycads

Back 171

longest surviving group of gymnosperms

Front 172

used by the following angiosperms: oaks, grasses, and birches

Back 172

wind pollination

Front 173

what is Pollination

Back 173

the transport of pollen from a microsporangium to a stigma whereas fertilization is the fusion of a sperm with an egg.

Front 174

this process is unique to angiosperms, consists of fertilization of an egg by one sperm and of the nucleus of an endosperm-forming cell by another sperm, and leads to the formation of a diploid zygote and the typically triploid primary endosperm nucleus

Back 174

double fertilization

Front 175

mature ripened ovary containing fertilized seeds

Back 175

fruit

Front 176

includes embryo (sporophyte), endosperm (food source for embryo), and a protective cover

Back 176

seed

Front 177

produce two kinds of gametophytes; pollen grains are conveyed to female gametophyte by wind or pollinators, sperm reaches eggs by traveling through a pollen tube and a dormant phase is introduced into the life cycle. use meiosis to produce microspores and megaspores

Back 177

seed plants

Front 178

Seed plants include

Back 178

gymnosperms and angiosperms, but only angiosperms have flowers, fruits, and endosperm in seeds.

Front 179

rhizoids

Back 179

colorless root-like projections of mosses, liverworts, and hornworts, which anchor them to the substrate

Front 180

pore-like structures on leaves that open & close depending on environmental conditions thereby regulating intake of carbon dioxide, release of oxygen, and loss of water.

Back 180

stomata

Front 181

polymer on the leaves of vascular plants that protects them from pathogens

Back 181

cutin

Front 182

xylem

Back 182

transports water and dissolved minerals upward from the roots to stems & leaves

Front 183

phloem

Back 183

transports carbohydrates (food) away from green parts of plant to rest of plant

Front 184

roots, shoots, and leaves contain 3 basic tissue types: dermal (protection: wax & bark), ground (storage, photosynthesis, secretion), vascular (conduction: xylem --> water, dissolved minerals; phloem --> nutrient containing solution)

Back 184

plant organization

Front 185

they are undifferentiated cells that can produce new tissues and serve as a framework for the positioning of leaves; modified stems include tendrils, tubers, corm, and rhizomes

Back 185

stem

Front 186

have a central column of xylem with radiating arms, alternating with strands of primary phloem; root hairs increase surface area for absorption of water and minterals; specialized versions include buttress, pneumatophore, prop, lateral

Back 186

roots

Front 187

primary location for photosynthesis

Back 187

leaf

Front 188

leaf epidermis

Back 188

includes stoma (pores), guard cells, trichomes, cuticular wax

Front 189

simple vs/ compound leaves

Back 189

simple leaves have a single subdivision or leaflet; compound have blade divided into leaflets

Front 190

meristematic cells

Back 190

plant cells that give rise to two cells, one of which is free to differentiate into various kinds of cells that contribute to the plant body
Meristems –
can be apical or lateral

Front 191

apical meristem

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location of primary growth that results in an increase in height or length; primary growth at the apical meristems can produce cells that differentiate into leaves, ground tissue, procambium, and epidermis (no bark).

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Plant embryos grow into seedlings by adding new cells at only two growth points, what are they?

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the shoot and root apical meristems.

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cork cambium

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growing center (lateral meristem) that gives rise to outer layers of bark on both root and shoots

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vascular cambium

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it develops between the primary xylem and the primary phloem in dicots and ultimately gives rise to secondary xylem and phloem

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allows leaf blades to grow larger as a result of cell division

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marginal meristems

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parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma

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ground tissue

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lateral meristem

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where cell division occurs resulting in secondary growth of plants; woody plants have two types --> cork cambium & vascular cambium

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what cells function in storage, photosynthesis, and as the bulk of ground and vascular tissues; also occur within the xylem and phloem of vascular bundles; make up the edible parts of most vegetables and fruit

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parenchyma cells

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collenchyma cells

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provide support for plant organs in which secondary growth (lateral meristem cell division) has not yet occurred and are alive at maturity; consists of elongated supporting cells with unevenly thickened cells walls, usually located in strands beneath the epidermis (celery strings)

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what cells lack cytoplasm and protoplasts at maturity, may be impregnated with lignin, are tough and thick-walled (secondary), and serve to strengthen tissues...examples: fibers and sclereids

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sclerenchyma cells (These cells do not divide throughout the life of the plant.)

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what is a Node and Internode?

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NODE is Point of attachment of leaf to stem
Internode = Area of stem between two nodes

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what is a Blade and a Petiole

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Blade = Flattened part of leaf
Petiole = Stalk that connects flattened leaf blade to stem (in most dicots)

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what is a Axil, Axillary bud and Terminal bud

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Axil = Angle between petiole/blade and stem
Axillary bud = found in the angle between the petiole and a stem; develops into branches with leaves or may form flowers
Terminal bud = Extends the shoot system during the growing season

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closely packed column-like cells within a leaf, just beneath the upper epidermis

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palisade parenchyma

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what are trichomes

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outgrowths of the epidermis that occur on the shoot

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parts of angiosperm phloem lined up end-to-end forming tubes

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sieve-tube members

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what cells are designed for transport?

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xylem vessel members, sieve tube members, tracheids, & sieve cells, but water is conducted through the vessel members most rapidly.

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stomata

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openings within the epidermis of leaves through which gas (CO2 in and O2 out) and water passes (helps to control loss of water and water vapor; surrounded by guard cells; allows necessary passage of material through the waterproof cuticle covering the epidermis of land plants

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mesophyll tissue

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tissue layers of palisade and spongy parenchyma cells in the middle of a leaf, between the upper and lower epidermis; filled with many chloroplasts

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monocot vs dicot (eudicot)

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monocot: vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue in stems and leaves have parallel veins; no vascular cambium therefore, no secondary growth

dicot (eudicot): vascular bundles are arranged around perimeter of ground tissue in stems and leaves have netted venation

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what are major distinguishing feature between monocot vs dicot?

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organization of vascular tissue

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contains vessel members, tracheids, fibers, and rays...WATER MOVES MOST RAPIDLY through the vessel members but in woody tissues, rays are most efficient at conducting water horizontally.

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xylem tissue

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What is the diffusion of water vapor from a plant? This process is responsible for the water drawn up the plant stem from the roots and is also responsible for the loss of 90% of all water taken in.

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transpiration

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what does a vascular bundle contain ?

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xylem and phloem.

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state 5 facts of phloem

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- contains elongated conducting cells
- contains two types of cells, sieve cells and sieve tube members
- Some of its cells lack a nucleus at maturity
- Some of its cells contain clusters of pores
- conducts nutrients

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plant's dry weight

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94% comes from Carbon osygen, and hydrogen

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what is the removal harmful chemicals from the soil by plants

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phytorediation

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TCE (trichloroetheylene)

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carcinogenic to humans

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erosion

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can cause a loss of soil mineral nutrients in cultivated communities

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carnivorous plants

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evolved because of habitats with extremely limited nitrogen

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hydroponic culture

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Plants are suspended with their roots in a nutrient solution.

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Includes: C,O,H,N,K,Ca, Mg, P & S
- They approach or exceed 1% of a healthy plant's dry weight.
- A deficiency in any one can have severe effects on a plant's growth.
- They can have important implications for human nutrition.
- The ability of the plants to uptake minerals is affected by soil pH.

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macronutrients

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includes: Cl, Fe, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, & Mo
- a deficiency makes the plant susceptible to herbivores

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micronutrients

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organic fertilizers

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have an advantage over inorganic because organic release nutrients more slowly

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what is citrate used for?

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released by genetically modified plants which makes phosphate in soils more soluble

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does not require oxygen for photosynthesis

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plant growth

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what is ammonia (NH3) used for

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needed by plants to build amino acids

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Nod factor

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important component of legume-bacterial interactions

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mycorrhizal fungi/plant symbiotic relationship

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more prevalent than the symbiotic relationships between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants

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top soil volume

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largest proportion is air and water

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soil characteristics

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- made up of one or more kinds of minerals
- is product of weathering of rocks, - mineral and organic soil particles have mostly negatively-charged surfaces with negatively charged ions predominate in the soil solution.

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why is it beneficial to plants that soil particles have negatively-charged surfaces?

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because they attract positively-charged ions and prevent them from being washed deep into the soil.

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elevated atmospheric CO2

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has potential increase growth rates, to alter the nutritional status of plants, and to increase herbivory

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what are some methods to increasing nutrient availability to crop plants

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- adding humus to soil
- crop rotation
- plowing crop residue under
- applying chemical fertilizers

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what are The most important mineral nutrients added to soils in fertilizers ?

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nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium.

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insectivorous plants

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grow in acidic soils with low nitrogen

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what is most limiting element for plant growth, especially in relation to the plant's carbon uptake.

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Nitrogen

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what are released during the initiation of nitrogen fixation nodules to signal the Rhizobium bacteria

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flavonoids

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what especially effective in helping plant roots uptake phosphorus

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mycorrhiza

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most energetically expensive reaction - splitting the triple bonds of a N2 molecule with the nitrogenase enzyme requires 16 ATPs

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nitrogen fixation