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171 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Aging theories |
Humans began during puberty Cells slowly decline in function causing tissues, organs, & systems to eventually fail |
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Aging theories - Glucose |
Excess sugar cross-links glucose & proteins together Proteins can't function properly Cell membrane becomes less permeable Blood vessels become less flexible, blockage becomes more likely Tendons, ligaments, & muscles become less flexible |
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Aging theories - Free radicals |
By-products of chemical reactions Damage cells & tissues Most common = electrically charged O2 (takes electrons from other molecules) Neutralized by anti-oxidants (sacrifice themselves) Found in fruits, veggies ect (flavonoids) |
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Aging theories - Hormones |
Important ones decline Cortisol (stress) increases along with sleep deprivation & caffeine Increases blood pressure & blood sugar Decrease bone formation Memory retrieval & depresses immune system |
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Aging theories - Telomeres |
Tips of chromosomes Preservation of DNA Protection of cells against cancer Cancer cells have longer telomeres |
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Omega-3 |
Fatty acids Fish oil Preserve telomeres during mitosis |
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Aging theories - daf |
2 genes Gene code for a hormone receptor Normal function = normal aging Mutations cause slower work FoxO3A |
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FoxO3A |
Proteins bind to cells DNA Stimulates cell to produce more anti-oxidants, boost immune system, & speed up DNA repair Found in long-lived people |
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Mitosis & meiosis both |
Forms of cell division Follow IPMAT |
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Mitosis |
Single division of cell 2 genetically identical daughter cells Produces new cells, repairs damaged body parts, replaces old/ worn out cells Less than 1% of body cells go through it at any 1 moment 6-8 hours for human cells Can occur in any body cell |
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Meiosis |
Two cell divisions 4 cells Each new cell has 1/2 the # of chromosomes as the original Only occurs in sex organs during production of gametes |
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Diploid |
46 chromosomes for humans Testes & ovaries |
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Meiosis |
Two cell divisions 4 cells Each new cell has 1/2 the # of chromosomes as the original Only occurs in sex organs during production of gametes |
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Diploid |
46 chromosomes for humans Testes & ovaries Zygote |
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Haploid |
23 chromosomes Sperm & egg |
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Chromosome # |
Helpful in wildlife studies Identify species by DNA of hair/ scat ect |
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Chromosome # |
Helpful in wildlife studies Identify species by DNA of hair/ scat ect |
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Gregor Mendel |
Monk Taught math & physics In charge of monastery garden Grew different types of pea plants 7 years |
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Chromosome # |
Helpful in wildlife studies Identify species by DNA of hair/ scat ect |
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Gregor Mendel |
Monk Taught math & physics In charge of monastery garden Grew different types of pea plants 7 years |
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Mendels experiment |
Cross pollinated 2 purebred plants with contrasting traits Focused on 7 contrasting traits Parents P had offspring called F1 generation Step 1 - purebred cross Step 2 - hybrid cross |
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Chromosome # |
Helpful in wildlife studies Identify species by DNA of hair/ scat ect |
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Gregor Mendel |
Monk Taught math & physics In charge of monastery garden Grew different types of pea plants 7 years |
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Mendels experiment |
Cross pollinated 2 purebred plants with contrasting traits Focused on 7 contrasting traits Parents P had offspring called F1 generation Step 1 - purebred cross Step 2 - hybrid cross |
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Mendels conclusions |
Biological inheritance is determined by factors that are passed from one generation to the next (genes - not used until 1909) |
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Principle of dominance |
Some factors are dominant & others are recessive Results published in 1866 Largely ignored at the time Rediscovered around 1900 |
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Principle of segregation |
Genes are separated from each other during gamete formation Each parent produces 2 types of gametes Variety in offspring |
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Principle of independent assortment |
Genes located on different chromosomes sort themselves out independently of other genes More variety in offspring |
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Discoveries after mendel |
Crossing over - metaphase 1 Pieces of chromosomes can break off and reattach to other chromosomes |
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No disjunction |
Failure of chromatids to properly separate during meiosis Gametes with improper # Down syndrome - trisomy, 3 copies of 21st chromosome Turners syndrome - females only inherit 1 X chromosome, sex organs don't develop at puberty |
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Sex-linked genes |
Genes carried on sex chromosomes X - 800-1000 genes, 100+ genetic disorders Y - 100-200 genes, smaller |
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Sex-linked genes |
Genes carried on sex chromosomes X - 800-1000 genes, 100+ genetic disorders Y - 100-200 genes, smaller |
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Color blindness |
Sex linked Found on X chromosome Recessive Males only need 1 gene Females need 2 |
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Incomplete dominance |
Genes blend expression |
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Incomplete dominance |
Genes blend expression |
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Co-dominance |
Both dominant & recessing genes express themselves |
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Incomplete dominance |
Genes blend expression |
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Co-dominance |
Both dominant & recessing genes express themselves |
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Multiple alleles |
3 or more genes (Blood types) |
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Incomplete dominance |
Genes blend expression |
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Co-dominance |
Both dominant & recessing genes express themselves |
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Multiple alleles |
3 or more genes (Blood types) |
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Pleiotropy |
1 gene can affect more than 1 trait (PKU) |
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Incomplete dominance |
Genes blend expression |
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Co-dominance |
Both dominant & recessing genes express themselves |
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Multiple alleles |
3 or more genes (Blood types) |
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Pleiotropy |
1 gene can affect more than 1 trait (PKU) |
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Sex- influenced |
Hormones affect gene expression |
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Incomplete dominance |
Genes blend expression |
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Co-dominance |
Both dominant & recessing genes express themselves |
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Multiple alleles |
3 or more genes (Blood types) |
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Pleiotropy |
1 gene can affect more than 1 trait (PKU) |
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Sex- influenced |
Hormones affect gene expression |
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Polygenic inheritance |
Several pairs of genes all affect the same trait (skin color, hair, eyes) |
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Genes, chromosomes & proteins |
Human genome project = 99% of genes 21,000 genes, 46 chromosomes 1.5% of DNA codes for proteins 98.5% = start/stop codons, telomeres, duplicate genes & mystery DNA Over 100,000 proteins MD ---> create new proteins |
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Genes, chromosomes & proteins |
Human genome project = 99% of genes 21,000 genes, 46 chromosomes 1.5% of DNA codes for proteins 98.5% = start/stop codons, telomeres, duplicate genes & mystery DNA Over 100,000 proteins MD ---> create new proteins |
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Gene malling |
99% of genes same in everyone Where genes are on chromosomes 1000s have been located Focus on diseases/ birth defects Some predispose to a condition, developing it is unknown |
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Asexual |
1 organism produces genetically identical copied |
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Asexual advantage |
Many offspring in little time Rapid colonization in new habitats |
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Asexual advantage |
Many offspring in little time Rapid colonization in new habitats |
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Asexual disadvantage |
No genetic variety Little chance for adaption in a changing environment |
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Asexual advantage |
Many offspring in little time Rapid colonization in new habitats |
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Asexual disadvantage |
No genetic variety Little chance for adaption in a changing environment |
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Sexual |
2 parents produce haploid gametes Fertilization produces a zygote that's a genetically unique individual |
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Asexual advantage |
Many offspring in little time Rapid colonization in new habitats |
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Asexual disadvantage |
No genetic variety Little chance for adaption in a changing environment |
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Sexual |
2 parents produce haploid gametes Fertilization produces a zygote that's a genetically unique individual |
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Sexual advantage |
Greater genetic variety Better chance for adaption |
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Asexual advantage |
Many offspring in little time Rapid colonization in new habitats |
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Asexual disadvantage |
No genetic variety Little chance for adaption in a changing environment |
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Sexual |
2 parents produce haploid gametes Fertilization produces a zygote that's a genetically unique individual |
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Sexual advantage |
Greater genetic variety Better chance for adaption |
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Sexual disadvantage |
Logistics Requires more energy Fewer offspring More care |
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Asexual advantage |
Many offspring in little time Rapid colonization in new habitats |
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Asexual disadvantage |
No genetic variety Little chance for adaption in a changing environment |
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Sexual |
2 parents produce haploid gametes Fertilization produces a zygote that's a genetically unique individual |
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Sexual advantage |
Greater genetic variety Better chance for adaption |
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Sexual disadvantage |
Logistics Requires more energy Fewer offspring More care |
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Binary fission |
Mitosis Asexual Bacteria, Protozoa Sometimes involves multiple fission = nucleus divides many times then cytoplasm divides |
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Budding |
Asexual New individual is outgrowth of parent Sponges & hydroids |
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Budding |
Asexual New individual is outgrowth of parent Sponges & hydroids |
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Gemmulation |
Specialized cells clump together Surrounded by spicules & tough spongin coat
Cells become dormant - survive cold season Freshwater sponge |
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Budding |
Asexual New individual is outgrowth of parent Sponges & hydroids |
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Gemmulation |
Specialized cells clump together Surrounded by spicules & tough spongin coat
Cells become dormant - survive cold season Freshwater sponge |
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Fragmentation |
Pieces of adult break off Regenerate into new adults |
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Bisexual |
2 separate parents All vertebrates Many invertebrates |
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Bisexual |
2 separate parents All vertebrates Many invertebrates |
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Diecious |
Separate sexes |
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Bisexual |
2 separate parents All vertebrates Many invertebrates |
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Diecious |
Separate sexes |
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Monoecious |
1 organism with both sets of reproductive organs Worms & barnacles |
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Hermaphrodites |
Some self fertilize (rare) 2 individuals exchange sperm Parasites Maximum reproduction |
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Hermaphrodites |
Some self fertilize (rare) 2 individuals exchange sperm Parasites Maximum reproduction Sequential = warrse & clown fish, change sex based on dominance/ size |
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Parthenogenesis |
Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg Worms, insects, lizards & crustaceans Ameiotic & meiotic |
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Ameiotic |
Egg formed by mitosis Clones |
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Meiotic |
Egg formed by meiosis Several variations |
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Blastula |
After fertilization, zygote divides repeatedly (mitosis) until a hallow ball of 100s of cells is formed Same size as egg cell Cells now "normal" sized Occurs in all multicellular animals No additional development in sponges |
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Gastrula |
One area of blastula folds inward creating a second layer of cells Jellyfish, sea anemone, coral, flatworms |
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Meaoderm |
3rd layer of cells Most animals Colelom = body cavity |
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Meaoderm |
3rd layer of cells Most animals Colelom = body cavity |
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Induction |
Chemical signals from 1 group of cells tells neighboring cells to differentiate into specific tissue |
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Meaoderm |
3rd layer of cells Most animals Colelom = body cavity |
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Induction |
Chemical signals from 1 group of cells tells neighboring cells to differentiate into specific tissue |
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Cell migration |
Some cells move into developing areas following chemical trails secreted by cells in that area (like a limb) |
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Meaoderm |
3rd layer of cells Most animals Colelom = body cavity |
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Induction |
Chemical signals from 1 group of cells tells neighboring cells to differentiate into specific tissue |
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Cell migration |
Some cells move into developing areas following chemical trails secreted by cells in that area (like a limb) |
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Apoltosis |
Programmed cell death Proteins in cell (when activated) kill the cell & tell adjacent cell to digest the remains |
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As zygote develops... |
Homeotic & HOX genes turn on and off other genes Produce proteins that bind to other genes Trigger development of appropriate structures in correct places at the correct time (legs, eyes, ect) Genes similar in all animal groups |
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Symmetry |
S |
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Spherical |
Any plans passing through the center of the body results in mirror images |
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Causes of diseases - inside |
Death of cells Cell damage DNA or protein function disrupted |
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Spherical |
Any plans passing through the center of the body results in mirror images Radiolarians, some Protozoa Rare in multicellular animals |
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Radial |
A plane through the longitudinal axis will produce 2 equal halves Cnidarians & ctenophora |
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Bulateral |
Mirror image right & left sides Most animals including humans Sea stars radial as adults but bilateral as larvae |
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Cephalization |
Development of a head |
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Anterior |
Front or head |
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Posterior |
Tail or end |
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Dorsal |
Upper or back |
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Ventral |
Bottom or belly |
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Disease |
Any change, other than an injury, that disrupts the normal functioning of a body or body system |
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Causes of diseases - outside |
Genetically inherited Conditions in environment Pathogens = parasites, viruses, bacteria & fungi |
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Spread of diseases |
Airborne - dust particles, droplets Waterborne - most rapidly spread, diarrhea, 2+ million deaths/ year Contact - indirect, direct, carriers (vectors): malaria = 1 million deaths / year |
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Epidemic outbreak |
Widespread occurrence of a particular infectious disease in a population, community, or region at a particular time |
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Zoonosis |
A disease transmitted from animals to humans Black Plague, rabies, Ebola |
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Endemic |
A disease or condition commonly found among particular people or a certain geographical area (malaria) |
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Pandemic |
Epidemic that's spread across a large region, like 1 or more continents |
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Innate immunity |
Defense does not depend on prior exposure to a disease |
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Innate immunity |
Defense does not depend on prior exposure to a disease |
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Acquired / adaptive immunity |
Activates only after exposure to specific pathogens Found only in vertebrates |
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Innate immunity |
Defense does not depend on prior exposure to a disease |
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Acquired / adaptive immunity |
Activates only after exposure to specific pathogens Found only in vertebrates |
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1st line defense |
Physical barriers Skin Mucous membranes Sweat, saliva, tears (lsysozyme) Stomach acid Nasal hairs Cilia in lungs, trachea Bacteria in intestines Anti microbial peptides |
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Innate immunity |
Defense does not depend on prior exposure to a disease |
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Acquired / adaptive immunity |
Activates only after exposure to specific pathogens Found only in vertebrates |
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1st line defense |
Physical barriers Skin Mucous membranes Sweat, saliva, tears (lsysozyme) Stomach acid Nasal hairs Cilia in lungs, trachea Bacteria in intestines Anti microbial peptides Allergies - overreactions |
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Anti microbial peptides |
Enzymes released upon contact with a microbe - not specific Poked holes in surface of microbe or disrupt microbes internal proteins |
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2nd line defense |
Cellular & chemical defenses Phagocytes Injured cells produce histamine Inflammation Fever - heat harms bacteria Interferon |
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2nd line defense |
Cellular & chemical defenses Phagocytes Injured cells produce histamine Inflammation Fever - heat harms bacteria Interferon |
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Phagocytes |
Various specialized white blood cells seek out, engulf & destroy pathogens |
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2nd line defense |
Cellular & chemical defenses Phagocytes Injured cells produce histamine Inflammation Fever - heat harms bacteria Interferon |
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Phagocytes |
Various specialized white blood cells seek out, engulf & destroy pathogens |
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Interferon |
Protein produced by cells under viral attack, warns other cells, helps interfere with virus reproduction |
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3rd line defense |
Acquired or adaptive Antigen Antibodies Bind to antigen |
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Anyigen |
Any foreign substance or organism |
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Anyigen |
Any foreign substance or organism |
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Antibodies |
Proteins produced by B (Produced in bone marrow) lymphocytes of immune system |
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Anyigen |
Any foreign substance or organism |
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Antibodies |
Proteins produced by B (Produced in bone marrow) lymphocytes of immune system |
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Bind to antigen |
Immobilize it Neutralize toxins produced by antigen Attract macrophages Activate complement system - various proteins punch holes in cell membrane of antigen, killing it |
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Types of white blood cells |
Phagocytes (2nd line) Macrophages (3rd line) Killer T cells (3rd line) T suppressor cells (3rd line) B cells (3rd line) T helper cells (3rd line) |
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Primary (acquired) immune response |
Focused on production of antibodies from 1st antigen exposure (illness) Chicken pox Sick |
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Secondary immune response |
Some antibodies already present, now immune to that illness Immune |
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Autoimmune disorders |
Immune system incorrectly attacks the body's own cells (unknown why) 100+ disorders Male to female ratio is 3:1 23+ million Americans Treatments but no cures Fatigue, muscle aches, low fever, & inflammation |
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Autoimmune disorders |
Immune system incorrectly attacks the body's own cells (unknown why) 100+ disorders Male to female ratio is 3:1 23+ million Americans Treatments but no cures Fatigue, muscle aches, low fever, & inflammation |
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Organ transplants |
Major problem is rejection of new organ |
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Vaccination |
Introduce dead or inactive pathogen into body Stimulates production of antibodies |
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Vaccination |
Introduce dead or inactive pathogen into body Stimulates production of antibodies |
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Active immunity |
Produced by illness or vaccination Long term protection |
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Vaccination |
Introduce dead or inactive pathogen into body Stimulates production of antibodies |
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Active immunity |
Produced by illness or vaccination Long term protection |
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Passive immunity |
Produced by receiving pre made antibodies In womb Breast milk Overseas travel shots Short term protection only |
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Vaccination |
Introduce dead or inactive pathogen into body Stimulates production of antibodies |
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Active immunity |
Produced by illness or vaccination Long term protection |
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Passive immunity |
Produced by receiving pre made antibodies In womb Breast milk Overseas travel shots Short term protection only |
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Antibiotics |
Chemicals used to kill bacteria Not effective against viruses Misuse - some are overprescribed by doctors & agriculture, leads to resistant strains of bacteria |
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Vaccination |
Introduce dead or inactive pathogen into body Stimulates production of antibodies |
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Active immunity |
Produced by illness or vaccination Long term protection |
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Passive immunity |
Produced by receiving pre made antibodies In womb Breast milk Overseas travel shots Short term protection only |
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Antibiotics |
Chemicals used to kill bacteria Not effective against viruses Misuse - some are overprescribed by doctors & agriculture, leads to resistant strains of bacteria |
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Immune system strength |
Carries with age & health of individual Bad when young and old T cells produced in thymus glad |
