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149 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Structural Organization smallest to largest |
Atom Molecule Organelle Cell Tissue Organ Organ system Organism |
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8 life functions for humans |
Maintain boundaries Movement Responsiveness Digestion Metabolism Dispose of wastes Reproduction Growth |
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Integumentary System |
-Forms external body covering -Protects deeper tissue from injury -Synthesizes vitamin D -Houses Cutaneous Receptors and Sweat/oil glands |
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Skeletal System |
Protects and Supports body organs Provides a framework muscles use to cause movement Blood cells are formed within bones Storage of minerals |
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Muscular system |
Allows manipulation of environment Maintains posture Produces heat |
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Nervous system |
Fast acting control system of body Respond to internal/external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands |
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Endocrine system |
Slower control system of body Glands secrete hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism |
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Cardiovascular system |
Blood vessels transport blood Carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc Heart pumps blood |
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Lymphatic system /Immunity |
Picks up fluids leaked from blood vessels and returns to blood Disposes of debris in lymphatic stream Houses white blood cells |
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Respiratory system |
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide Gaseous exchange occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs |
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Digestive system |
Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces |
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Urinary system |
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from body Regulates water balance Regulates electrolyte balance Regulates acid-base balance of the blood |
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Reproductive system |
Male- testes produce sperm Female- ovaries produce eggs, mammary glands produce milk |
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5 things necessary to life |
Nutrients Oxygen Water Normal body Temp Appropriate atmospheric pressure |
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Homeostasis |
Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment Dynamic state of equilibrium Maintained by contributions of all organ systems
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Homeostatic control Mechanism
Receptor |
Monitors environment Responds to stimuli |
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Homeostatic control Mechanism
Control center |
Determines set point at which variable is maintained Receives input from receptor Determined appropriate response |
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Homeostatic control Mechanism
Effector |
Receives output from control center Provides the means to respond Response either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances (positive feedback) stimulus |
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Homeostasis:
Negative Feedback |
Most feedback mechanisms in body Response reduces or shuts of original stimulus EX: regulate body temp (nervous system). regulate blood volume by ADH (endocrine system) |
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Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Volume by ADH |
1)Receptors sense decreased blood volume 2)Control center in hypothalamus stimulates pituitary gland to release antidiuretic hormone (ADH) 3)ADH causes kidneys (effectors) to return more water to blood |
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Positive Feedback |
Enhances or exaggerates original stimulus Max exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment EX: enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin. platelet plug information and blood clotting |
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Disturbance of Homeostasis |
Increase risk of disease Contribute to changes associated with aging If negative feedback mechanisms overwhelmed |
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Anatomical position |
Standard anatomical body position -Body Erect -Feet Slightly Apart -Palms Forward -Thumbs pointing away from body (Right/left refer to body being viewed, not those of observer) |
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Anatomical Position:
Superior (cranial) |
Towards head |
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Anatomical Position:
Inferior (Caudal) |
Away from head Toward feet |
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Anatomical Position:
Ventral (anterior) |
Toward front of body |
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Anatomical Position:
Dorsal (posterior) |
Toward the back Behind |
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Anatomical Position:
Medial |
Toward the midline of body |
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Anatomical Position:
Lateral |
Away from the midline of the body |
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Anatomical Position:
Intermediate |
Between a more medial and more lateral structure |
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Anatomical Position:
Proximal |
Closer to the body trunk |
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Anatomical Position:
Distal |
Further from the body trunk |
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Anatomical Position:
Superficial |
Toward the body surface (external) |
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Anatomical Position:
Deep |
Internal, away from body surface |
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Two major divisions of body |
Axial- head, neck, trunk Appendicular- limbs |
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Body Plane |
Flat surface along which a body or structure may be cut for anatomical study
Sagittal Frontal Transverse |
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Sagittal Plane |
Divides body vertically into right and left parts. Produces a sagittal section if cut along this plane Midsagittal Plane- lies on midline Prasagittal Plane- not on midline |
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Frontal (coronal) Plane |
Divides body into anterior and posterior parts. Produces frontal (coronal) section |
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Transverse (horizontal) plane |
Divides body horizontally into superior and inferior parts Produces a Cross Section |
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Two sets of internal body cavities |
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity |
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Dorsal Body Cavity |
Protects central nervous system
Cranial Cavity- encases brain Vertebral Cavity- Encases spinal cord |
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Ventral Body Cavity |
Houses internal organs
Thoracic Cavity- Abdominopelvic Cavity -Abdominal cavity -Pelvic cavity |
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Thoracic Cavity |
Two Pleural Cavities -each houses a lung Mediastinum -contains pericardial cavity -surrounds thoracic organs Pericardial Cavity -enclosed heart |
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Abdominopelvic Cavity |
Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity |
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Abdominal Cavity |
Inside abdominopelvic Cavity
Contains -stomach -intestines -spleen -liver |
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Pelvic Cavity |
Inside abdominopelvic Cavity
Contains -urinary bladder -reproductive organs -rectum |
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Serous membrane |
Thin double layered membranes -Parietal Serosa- lines internal body cavity walls -Visceral Serosa- covers internal organs
Layers separated by slit-like Cavity filled with serous fluid |
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Serous Membranes:
Pericardium |
Heart: - Visceral Pericadium -Parietal Pericadium |
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Serous Membranes:
Pleurae |
Lungs -Visceral Pleurae -Parietal Pleurae |
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Serous Membranes:
Peritoneum |
Abdominopelvic Cavity |
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Body cavities exposed to environment |
Oral and Digestive Cavities Nasal Cavity Orbital Cavities Middle ear Cavities |
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Body cavities not exposed to enviroment |
Synovial Cavities (joints) |
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants for medical personnel |
Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant Right lower Quadrant Left lower Quadrant |
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Abdominopelvic Regions by anatomists |
R/L Hypochondriac region Epigastric Region R/L Lumbar region Umbilical region R/L iliac region Hypogastric (pubic) region |
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Histology |
The study of tissues |
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Energy |
The capacity to do work or put matter into motion |
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Elements |
Matter is composed of elements Cannot be broke into simpler substances using ordinary chemical methods |
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Atom |
Smallest unit of an element |
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Physical properties of an element |
Detectable with our senses or are measurable |
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Chemical properties of an atom |
How atoms interact (bond) with one another |
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Atoms |
Unique for each element Give element it's physical and chemical properties |
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Atomic Symbol |
One/Two letter chemical shorthand for each element |
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4 elements make up 96.1% of body mass |
Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen |
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Subatomic particles |
Make up atoms: Protons (+) Neutrons (0) Electrons (-) |
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Protons & Neutrons |
Found in nucleus Number of protons defines which element an atom belongs to |
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Electrons |
Orbit nucleus in electron cloud Chemical properties (how atom bonds) is defined by electrons |
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Isotopes |
Structural variations of atoms Differ in number of neutrons they contain
Heavy isotopes decompose to more stable forms |
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Radioisotopes |
Biological research/medicine Share same chemistry as their stable isotopes Most used for diagnosis All damage living tissue -Some used to destroy localized cancers -Radon from uranium decays causes lung cancer |
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Molecule |
Two or more atoms bonded together Smallest particle of a compound with specific characteristics of the compound |
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Compound |
Two or more different kinds of atoms bonded together |
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Valence Shell |
Outermost electron shell Octet rule |
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3 major chemical bonds |
Ionic Covalent Hydrogen |
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Ions |
Atom gains or loses electrons and becomes charged |
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Anion |
Negative charge (gains electrons) |
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Cation |
Positive charge (loses electrons) |
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Ionic bond |
Attraction of opposite charges Transfer valence shell electrons EX: NaCl (sodium chloride) |
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Covalent Bonds |
Sharing 2 or more valence electrons Allows each atom to fill valence shell at least part of the time EX: O2 (oxygen gas) |
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Nonpolar Covalent Bonds |
Electrons shared equally Produces balanced, nonpolar molecules EX: CO2 |
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Polar Covalent Bonds |
Unequal sharing of electrons produces polar molecules Atoms in bond have different attracting abilities EX: H2O (water) V-shaped |
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Hydrogen bonds |
Attractive force between electropositive hydrogen of one molecule and electronegative atom of another
Not true bond Common between polar concealment molecules like water Act as intramuscular bonds, holding a large molecule in a 3D shape |
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Chemical Reactions |
Occur when chemical bonds are formed, rearranged or broken
Represented by Molecular Formulas |
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Prefix of Molecular formulas |
Unjoined atoms/molecules |
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Subscript of Molecular formulas |
Atoms joined by Bonds |
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Label:
4H + C = CH4 |
4H + C (Reactants) CH4 (Product) |
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Synthesis Reactions |
A+B=AB Atoms/Molecules combine to form larger/more complex molecule Always involve bond formation EX: Amino acids join to form Protein Molecule |
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Decomposition Reactions |
AB = A + B Molecule is broken down Involve breaking bonds EX: Glycogen to glucose molecules |
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Exchange Reactions |
AB + C = AC + B Also called displacement reactions Involve both synthesis and decompositions Bonds both made and broken EX: ATO Glucose into ADP Glucosephosphate |
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Chemical equilibrium |
Occurs if neither a forward nor reverse reaction is dominant |
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Enzymes |
Biological catalyst |
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4 increases of Reaction rate |
High temp High concentration of reactants Smaller particle size Catalysts |
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Organic Compounds |
CONTAIN CARBON Carbs, Fats, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
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Inorganic Compounds |
Do NOT contain carbon Water, Salts, many acids/bases |
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Water |
Most abundant inorganic compound 60-80% volume of living cells Most important inorganic compound High heat capacity High heat vaporization Polar solvent properties (forms solutions: homogenous mixtures) |
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Solvent |
Substance in greatest amount (usually a liquid) |
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Solute |
Present in smaller amounts |
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Salts |
Ionic Compounds that dissociate into ions in water -Ions (electrolytes) conduct electrical currents in a solution) -Ionic balance vital for homeostasis
Common salts in body NaCl, KCl, CaCo3, calcium phosphates |
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Acids and Bases |
Both are electrolytes (ionize and dissociate in water)
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Acids |
Proton donors Release H+ (bare proton) in solution Solution becomes + |
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Increases Acidity |
H+ increase OH- decrease PH decreases |
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Increase Alkalinity (basic) |
OH- Increases H+ decreases PH increase |
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Neutral Solutions |
Equal H+ and OH- pH = 7 |
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Blood pH |
7.35 to 7.45 |
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Buffers |
Resist abrupt and large swings in pH Release hydrogen if pH rises Bind hydrogen if pH falls
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Inorganic Compounds containing carbon |
CO2 and CO |
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Polymers |
Chains of similar units called monomers (building blocks)
Synthesized by dehydration synthesis Dissociated by hydrolysis reactions |
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Carbohydrates |
Sugars and starches Major source of cell fuel Structural molecules Polymers Contain C, H, O
3 classes Monosaccharides (one sugar) Disaccharides (two) Polysaccharides (many) |
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Monosaccharides |
Simple sugars Monomers of carbohydrates EX: ribose, deoxyribose, glucose |
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Disaccharides |
Double sugars Too large to pass through cell membranes Common in human diet EX: sucrose, maltose, lactose |
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Polysaccharides |
Starch- plant storage molecule Glycogen- animal storage Not very soluble in water due to large size |
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Lipids |
Contain C, H, O (less than is carbs) sometimes P *Insoluble in Water*
Main types Neutral fats (triglycerides) Phospholipids Steroids Eicosanoids |
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Triglycerides |
Fats when solid Oils when liquid 3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule
Functions Energy storage Insulation Protection |
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Saturated fatty acids |
Single Covalent Bonds between carbon atoms Max number of H atoms Long+Straight Solid animal fats EX butter |
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Unsaturated fatty acids |
One or more double Bonds between C atoms Reduced H atoms Kinked or bent Plant oils, EX: olive oil "Heart Healthy" |
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Phospholipids |
Glycerol 2 Fatty Acids Phosphorus (P) containing Head is polar Tail is nonpolar Important in Cell Membrane structure |
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Strroids |
Interlocking four-ring structure Cholesterol, vitamin D, steroid hormones, bile salts
Most important Cholesterol In cell membranes Vitamin D synthesis Steroid hormones Bile salts |
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Proteins |
Contain C, H, O, N sometimes S and P Polymers Amino Acids are monomers Joined by peptide bonds |
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Major types of proteins |
Structural Proteins Storage Proteins Contractile Proteins Transport Proteins Enzymes |
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Denaturation |
Global proteins unfold and lose functional 3D shape --Active sites destroyed Can be caused by decreased pH or increased temp Usually reversible if normal conditions restored Irreversible of extreme change (EX cooking egg) |
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Nucleic Acids |
DNA and RNA Contain C, O, H, N, P nucleotide are monomer |
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DNA |
4 nitrogen based --Adenine, Guanine, Cystonine, Thymine.
A with T G with C
Provides instructions for protein synthesis |
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RNA |
Ribonucleic Acid
4 bases= Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, Uracil
Pentode sugar is ribose Single stranded molecule mostly active out nucleus 3 varieties of RNA carry out DNA orders for protein synthesis mRNA tRNA rRNA |
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ATP |
Adenosine Triphosphate Energy currency of cells Chemical energy in glucose captured Directly powers chemical reactions |
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Human cell basic parts |
1)Plasma membrane- flexible outer boundary 2)Cytoplasm- intracell fluids/organelles 3)Nucleus- control center |
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Cytoplasm |
Between plasma membrane and nucleus
Composed of Cytosol Organelles Inclusions |
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Mitochondria |
Powerhouse of cell Double membrane structure Provide most of cells ATP Contain own DNA, RNA, ribo |
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Ribosomes |
Granules- nonmembranous **Site of protein synthesis** |
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Free ribosomes |
Synthesize soluble proteins that function in cytosol or other organelles |
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Membrane-bound Ribosomes |
Synthesize proteins to be incorporated in membranes, lysosomes, or exported from cell
Form rough ER |
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Endomembrane System |
Produce, degrade, store, export biological molecules Degrade potentially harmful substances
Includes: ER Golgi apparatus Secretory Vescicles lysosomes Nuclear membranes Plasma membranes |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum |
Interconnected tubes and parallel membranes Continuous with outer nuclear membrane
Rough ER Smooth ER |
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Rough ER |
External surface studded with ribosomes Manufactures all secreted proteins Synthesizes membrane integral proteins and phospholipids |
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Smooth ER |
Enzymes function in: Lipid metabolism, cholesterol/steroid based hormone synthesis, making lipids of lipoproteins Absorption synthesis and transport of fats Detox of drugs Storage and release of calcium |
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Golgi Apparatus |
Stacked/flattened membranous sacs Modifies, concentrates, packages proteins and lipids from rough ER |
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Peroxisomes |
Membranous sacs containing enzymes that detoxify harmful or toxic substances
*Neutralize dangerous free radicals (highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons)* |
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Lysosomes |
Spherical membranous bubbles containing digestive enzymes -safe site for intercellular digestion Digest infested bacteria, viruses, toxins *Autolysis- destroy cells injured or nonuseful tissues* Break down bone to release Ca2+ Degrade nonfunctional organelles |
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Nucleius |
Largest organelle Genetic library (blueprints to nearly all cell proteins) Responds to signals dictates kinds and amounts of proteins synthesized Three regions/structures |
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Uninucleate |
One nucleus Skeletal muscle cells Bone destruction cells
Most cells |
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Multinuceate |
Multiple nuclei Some Liver Cells |
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Anucleate |
Red blood cells |
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Nuclear Envelope |
Double membrane barrier Outer Layer- continuous with rough ER and bears ribosomes Inner Lining (nuclear lamina)- maintains shape of nucleus, scaffold to organize DNA Pores allow substances to pass, regulates transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus |
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Nucleoli |
Dark staining spherical bodies within nucleus Involved in synthesis and assembly of ribosomes |
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Chromatin |
Threadlike DNA (30%) Histone proteins (60%) RNA (10%)
Condense into chromosomes when cell starts to divide |
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Transcription |
DNA information coded in mRNA |
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Translation |
mRNA decided to assemble polypeptides |
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Cytoskeleton |
Elaborate series of rods throughout cytosol.
Three types -Microfilaments -Intermediate filaments -Microtubules |
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Cell Cycle |
defines changes from formation of cell until it reproduces Interphase- cells grows and carries out functions Mitotic Phase- divides into two cells |
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Interphase |
Period from cell formation to cell division Nuclear material is in chromatic
G1- vigorous growth and metabolism S- DNA replication occurs G2- preparation for division |
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Meiosis |
Cell division producing gametes (egg and sperm) |
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Cell differentiation |
Development of specific distinctive features in cells |
