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118 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Primary sex organs (gonads) of males and females:
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males - testes
females - ovaries |
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Sex hormones:
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androgens (males), estrogens and progesterone (females)
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What are the male accessory sex glands?
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empty their secretions into the ducts during ejaculation
includes the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands |
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How are the sperm delivered to the body exterior?
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(in order) epididymis, the ductus deferens, the ejaculatory duct, and the urethra
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What is the scrotum and what are the two muscles which regulate the temperature of the testes?
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sac of skin and superficial fascia that hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity at the root of the penis
dartos muscle - layer of smooth muscle in the superficial fascia that wrinkles the scrotal skin cremaster muscle - bands of skeletal muscle that arise from the internal oblique muscles of the trunk which elevate the testis |
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What is cryptorchidism?
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the nondescent of the testes, which is a risk factor for testicular cancer
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What are the accessory reproductive organs?
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ducts, glands, and external genitalia
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What are the two tunics of the testis? What are they made of?
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tunica vaginalis - two layered outer tunic; derived from an outpocketing of the peritoneum
tunica albuginea - the fibrous capsule of the testis |
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What is the septa?
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extends inward from the tunica albuginea and divides the testis into about 250 wedge-shaped lobules (each lobule contains one to four seminiferous tubules)
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What are the seminiferous tubules?
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the actual "sperm factories"; thick stratified epithelium; surround a central lumen
produce the sperm and converge to form the tubulus rectus which conveys the sperm to the rete testis - from the rete testis the sperm leaves and will enter the epididymis they are surrounded by interstitial cells |
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What are the roles of spermatogenic cells, sustentocytes, and myoid cells?
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spermatogenic cells are "sperm forming" cells they are embedded in substantially larger columnar cells called....
sustenocytes - they are supporting cells that play several roles in sperm formation myoid cells - surround each seminiferous tubule; contract rhythmically to squeeze sperm and testicular fluids through the tubules and out of the testes |
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What structures make up the male duct system?
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from proximal to distal - epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra
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What is the epididymis?
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located outside the testes; for storage and maturation of sperms; contains lots of antibacterial components; absorbs testicular fluid and passes nutrients to the sperm; nonmotile sperm enter, pass through its tubes and become motile; upon ejaculation the epididymis contracts expelling sperm into the ductus deferens
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What is the ductus deferens?
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also called the vas deferens - runs from the epididymis through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity, its terminus expands to form the ampulla and then joins the duct of the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct
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What is the ejaculatory duct?
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each ejaculatory duct enters the prostate and there it empties into the urethra
propel sperm of the epididymis to the urethra |
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What is a vasectomy?
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a small incision is made into the scrotum and then cuts through and ligates (ties off) each ductus deferens; sperm are still produced but they can no longer reach the body exterior
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What is the urethra and its three regions?
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terminal portion of the male duct system; conveys both semen and urine (at different times)
three regions are: prostatic, membranous, and spongy or penile |
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Where is the prostatic urethra located? the membranous? the spongy/penile?
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prostatic - innermost, portion surrounded by the prostate
membranous - middle, lies in the urogenital diaphragm spongy or penile - outermost, runs through the penis and opens to the outside at the external urethral orifice |
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What is special about the spongy/penile urethra?
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is about 6 inches long and accounts for 75% of urethral length; its mucosa contains scattered urethral glands that secrete lubricating mucus into the lumen just before ejaculation
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What are the male accessory glands? What do they do?
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the paired seminal glands and bulbourethral glands and the single prostate
together they produce the bulk of semen (sperm plus accessory gland secretions) |
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What are the seminal glands?
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they lie on the posterior wall of the bladder and secrete 70% of the volume of semen; fairly large and hollow; its fibrous capsule encloses a thick layer of smooth muscle that contracts during ejaculation to empty the gland
seminal gland secretion accounts for some 70% of the volume of semen; contributes = viscous alkaline fluid containing fructose (nutrients for sperm - energy), ascorbic acid (Vit. C - prevent mutations), coagulating enzyme (vesculase - protection), and prostaglandins (help propel sperm forward into the vagina) sperm and seminal fluid mix in the ejaculatory duct and enter the prostatic urethra during ejaculation |
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What is the prostate gland?
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doughnut-shaped gland that encircles part of the urethra inferior to the bladder
its milky, slightly acidic fluid, which contains citrate, enzymes, and prostate-specific antigen (PSA), accounts for 1/3 of the semen volume plays a role in sperm activation |
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What is the difference between prostate gland fluid and seminal fluid?
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prostate gland secretion is for activation where as seminal is for protection
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What are the bulbourethral glands?
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pea-sized glands inferior to the prostate
produce thick, clear mucus prior to ejaculation that neutralizes traces of acidic urine in the urethra |
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What is benign prostatic hyperplasia?
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prostate increases in size as males get older can decrease the flow of urine
treated with finasteride to help shrink the prostate |
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What is semen?
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milky white, sticky mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions
provides a transport medium and nutrients (fructose), protects and activates sperm, and facilitates their movement, contains prostaglandins |
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What do prostaglandins do in regards to the sperm?
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decreases the viscosity of mucus in the cervix
stimulates reverse peristalsis in the uterus (contractions trying to push the sperm out) facilitates the movement of sperm through the female reproductive tract |
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What are the male gonads and what do they do?
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testes and produce sperm which lie within the scrotum
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What is the penis? What does it consist of? What is circumcision?
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it is a copulatory organ designed to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract
consists of an attached root and a free shaft that ends in the glans penis circumcision is the surgical removal of the foreskin (cuff of skin covering the distal end of the penis) after birth --- studies show it decreases the risk of STDs |
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What is an erection? What nervous system and gas are involved? What is the erectile tissue of the penis?
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an erection is the enlargement and stiffening of the penis which results from engorgement of the erectile bodies with blood
PNS reflex promotes the release of nitric oxide which causes erectile tissue to fill with blood the erectile tissues include corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum erection of the penis is one of the rare examples of parasympathetic control of arterioles |
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What is the purpose of the corpora cavernosa and the corpus spongiosum?
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the corpora cavernosa compresses the drainage veins and retards blood outflow which maintains penile engorgement
the corpus spongiosum functions in keeping the urethra open during ejaculation |
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What is ejaculation?
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the propulsion of semen from the male duct system
sympathetic nerves serving the genital organs cause: - reproductive ducts and accessory organs to contract and empty their contents - the bladder sphincter muscle to constrict, preventing the expulsion of urine - bulbospongiosus muscles to undergo a rapid series of contractions which forces sperm from the penis |
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What is spermatogenesis?
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the sequence of events that produces sperm in the seminiferous tubules of the testes
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What is the pathway of ejaculation?
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seminiferous tubules, epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct (seminal vesicle = seminal fluid), prostatic urethra (prostate gland secretions), membranous urethra (bulbuourethral gland secretions), spongy urethra, external urethral orifice
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What is spermiogenesis? Where does it occur?
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a streamlining process which turns a spermatid into a sperm
the spermatid elongates, sheds its excess cytoplasmic baggage, and forms a tail it occurs in the epididymis |
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What are sustentocytes? What do they do to the seminiferous tubule?
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they are nonreplicating supporting cells bound together by tight junctions; also called "nurse cells"; form the blood testis barrier
provide nutreints to the developing spermatids and sperm, move cells along to the lumen, secrete testicular fluid that provides transport medium, phagocytize germ cells and excess cytoplasm during transformation of spermatids to sperm, produce chemical mediators which regulate spermatogenesis they divide the seminiferous tubule into two compartments - the basal compartment and the adluminal compartment |
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What is the basal compartment and the adluminal compartment?
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basal - extends from the basal lamina and contains spermatogonia and the earliest primary spermatocytes
adluminal - lies internally and includes meiotically active cells and the tubule lumen |
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What are xenobiotics?
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chemicals and products which produce male infertility (pesticides, plastics,...)
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What is the primary reproductive organ of the female and what purpose do they serve?
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ovaries
gametogenic (oocyte) functions and to produce female sex hormones |
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What are the main regions of an ovary?
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each ovary is surrounded by a tunica albuginea (fibrous CT); an outer cortex which houses the forming gametes; an inner medulla containing the largest blood vessels and nerves
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What are ovarian follicles? Where are they found?
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sac-like; consists of an immature egg (oocyte) encased by one or more layers of cells (one cell layer = follicle cells, more than one cell layer = granulosa cells)
located in the cortex |
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What are the uterine tubes? What do they consist of?
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form the initial part of the female duct system; receive the ovulated oocyte and are the site where fertilization generally occurs
consists of the fimbriae, infundibulum, isthmus, and ampulla |
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What is the ampulla, infundibulum, and fimbriae?
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the distal end of each uterine tube expands as it curves around the ovary, forming the ampulla, the ampulla ends in the infundibulum, an open, funnel-shaped structure bearing ciliated, fingerlike projections called fimbriae that drape over the ovary
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What two cells types are located in the uterine tubes? What purpose do they serve?
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non-ciliated cells - help to nourish the zygote/blastocyst
ciliated cells - move the zygote/blastocyst to the uterus (6 day journey) |
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What is the uterus?
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located in the pelvis, it is a hollow, thick-walled, muscular organ that receives, retains, and nourishes a fertilized ovum
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What are the three layers of the uterus? What are they comprised of?
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perimetrium - outermost, serous membrane
myometrium - smooth muscle layer endometrium - contains two layers: stratum basilis & stratum functionalis |
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What is the stratum functionalis? What occurs there?
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the functional layer of the endometrium of the uterus
it is shed during the menstrual cycle and is the site of embryo attachment |
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What is the cervix?
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narrow neck of the uterus which projects into the vagina
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What is the vagina? Does it have any glands? Is it acidic or basic -- what purpose does this serve?
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a thin-walled tube that extends from the cervix to the body exterior
it is often called the birth canal and is the female organ of copulation it doesn't have any glands, it is lubricated by the cervical mucous glands it is normally quite acidic which helps keep it healthy and free of infection--also hostile to sperm |
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How does oogenesis differ from spermatogenesis?
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- men will produce four sperm from a stem cell and women will only produce one ovum
- women will produce polar bodies and men will not - women are born with all of their gametes and men will constantly produce their gametes throughout their lifetime - production of gametes stalls in women following menopause and production of gametes in males will continue throughout the entire lifetime |
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What are the follicular and luteal phases? When does ovulation occur?
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they are the two consecutive phases of the ovarian cycle
follicular phase - period when the dominant follicle is selected and begins to secrete large amounts of estrogen; the development of the follicle; can vary and give you a longer cycle; lasts 1-14 days luteal phase - the period of corpus luteum activity; days 14 - 28 ovulation normally occurs on the 14th day |
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What is the ovarian cycle? What are its phases?
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the ovarian cycle is the monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg
its two consecutive phases are: the follicular phase and the luteal phase |
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What is the corpus luteum?
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what is left in the follicle once the oocyte is ovulated
produces progesterone and estrogen; degenerates if fertilization does not occur; maintains progesterone and estrogen levels until placenta takes of if fertilization does occur |
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What are the phases of the uterine cycle and what is happening?
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menstrual - (days 1-5) shedding of the endometrium
proliferative - (days 6-14) rebuilding secretory - (days 15-28) enriches the blood supply and provides nutrients for the embryo |
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Define: pregnancy, conceptus, gestation period, embryo, fetus
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pregnancy - events that occur from fertilization until the infant is born
conceptus - the developing offspring gestation period - time from last menstrual period until birth (~280 days) embryo - conceptus from fertilization through week 8 fetus - conceptus from wk 9 through birth |
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What is cleavage? What is its goal?
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a period of fairly rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote without intervening growth
goal of this first phase of development is to produce small cells with a high surface-to-volume ratio, which enhances their uptake of nutrients and oxygen and the disposal o wastes provides a large number of cells to serve as building blocks for constructing the embryo |
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What are the first four stages of embryonic development?
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zygote - fertilized egg
4-cell stage - 2 days morula - 3 days blastocyst - 4 days |
starts with zygote...
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What is a morula? A blastocyst?
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morula - loose collection of cells that form a cluster of 16 or more cells; present by 72 hours after fertilization occurs
blastocyst - fluid-filled hollow sphere compose of a single layer of large, flattened cells called trophoblast cells and a small cluster of 20 to 30 rounded cells, called the inner cell mass |
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What is hCG?
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human chorionic gonadotropin
it is secreted by trophoblast cells, later the chorion prompts the corpus luteum to continue secretion of progesterone and estrogen hCG levels rise until the end of the second month, then decline as the placenta begins to secrete progesterone and estrogen |
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What is placentation?
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refers to the formation of a placenta, a temporary organ that originates from both embryonic and maternal (endometrial) tissues
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What are the three germ layers (embryonic tissues) and what are they responsible for?
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endo - forms the linings of organs, BVs, and endocrine glands
meso - muscle, bone, CT ecto - nervous system and epidermis |
DO NOT CONFUSE WITH MEMBRANES!!!
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What are the four extraembryonic membranes? What are they responsible for?
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amnion - epiblast cells form a transparent sac filled with amniotic fluid; protective function, provides buoyancy, wastes excreted into this fluid later picked up by mom through placenta
yolk sac - a sac that hangs from the ventral surface of the embryo; where earliest RBCs are produced; forms primordial gonad cells; lining of digestive tract; THESE ARE THE ONLY PARTS OF THE EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES THAT BECOME PART OF THE FETUS allantois - small outpocketing at the caudal end of the yolk sac; forms the umbilical cord chorion - helps form the placenta; the outermost membrane; encloses the embryonic body and all other membranes; comes completely from the fetus |
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What are unique vascular modifications of the fetus?
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2 umbilical arteries and 1 umbilical vein and three vascular shunts
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What is the ductus venosus, foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus? What do the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus have in common? What do they turn into after birth?
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ductus venosus - venous shunt that bypasses the liver; turns into the ligamentum venosum
foramen ovale - shunts some of the blood entering the right atrium directly into the left atrium; turns into the fossa ovalis ductus arteriosus - transfers most of the blood that enters the right ventricle, that would normally be pumped out into the pulmonary trunk, directly into the aorta; turns into the ligamentum arteriosum the foramen ovale and the ductus arteriosus both serve to bypass the nonfunctional lungs |
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What are the two phases of breathing or pulmonary ventilation?
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inspiration (period when air flows into the lungs) and expiration (period when gases exit the lungs)
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What are factors that hinder air passage and pulmonary ventilation?
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airway resistance, alveolar surface tension, and lung compliance
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What is intrapulmonary pressure?
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pressure of air in alveoli
should equal atmospheric pressure |
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What is intrapleural pressure?
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4 mmHg less than atmospheric pressure
allows air to come in and fill up lung |
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Why is pressure in the pleural cavity less than atmospheric?
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lungs are elastic so they recoil which pulls lung tissue in
surface tension in and around alveoli cause negative pressure |
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What is Dalton's law?
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total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas
the partial pressure of each gas is directly proportional to its percentage in the mixture |
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What is Henry's law?
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when a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure
the amount of gas that will dissolve in a liquid also depend supon its solubility |
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Where does internal respiration occur?
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in body tissues
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How is oxygen transported?
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1.5% dissolved in the plasma
98.5% bound to hemoglobin |
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How is carbon dioxide transported?
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7-10% dissolved in plasma
20% bound to hemoglobin 70% as bicarbonate ions |
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What is the chloride-shift?
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movement of Cl into the cell as the HCO3 leaves the RBC to balance out charge and pH balance
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How does temperature, acidity, carbon dioxide, and BPG effect the hgb-o2 bond?
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increases in temperature, H+, CO2, and BPG modify the structure of hgb and decrease its affinity for O2
enhances O2 unloading shifts the hgb-O2 curve to the right |
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What is hypoxia? What are some causes?
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inadequate O2 delivery to tissues
two few RBCs (anemia), abnormal or too little hgb (iron deficiency, sickle-cell), blocked circulation (heart attack), metabolic poisons, pulmonary disease, carbon monoxide (binds to hgb more tightly than O2) |
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What is the Haldane effect?
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the lower the partial pressure of O2 the lower the hgb saturation with oxygen, the more CO2 that blood can carry
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What are the neural mechanisms that control respiration?
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medullary respiratory centers - VRG & DRG
pontine respiratory centers |
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What is the DRG? What does it do?
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dorsal respiratory group of the medullary respiratory center
integrates peripheral sensory input and modifies the rhythms generated by the VRG |
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What is the VRG? What does it do?
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ventral respiratory group of the medullary respiratory centers
it is the rhythm-generating and integrative center; sets eupnea contains rhythm generators whose output drive respiration |
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What do the pontine respiratory centers do?
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influence and modify activity of the VRG, smooth out transition between inspiration and expiration and vice versa
receive input from higher brain centers and from various sensory receptors in the periphery |
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What is the most powerful respiratory stimulant?
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rising CO2 levels
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What is the Herring-Breur Reflex?
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reflex responsible for breathing
stretch receptors in the pleurae and airways are stimulated by lung inflation; inhibitory signals to the medullary respiratory centers end inhalation and allow expiration to occur purpose of reflex is to act more as a protective response than a normal regulatory mechanism |
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What are the six essential steps of the digestive process?
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ingestion
propulsion mechanical digestion chemical digestion absorption defecation |
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What do mesenteries do?
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provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves to reach the digestive viscera; hold organs in place; and store fat
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What are the same four basic layers of the alimentary canal?
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the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa
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What is the job of the mucosa? What is it made of?
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the innermost layer
jobs are to: secrete mucus; absorb the end products of digestion into the blood; and protect against infectious disease mouth, esophagus, and anus - stratified squamous simple columnar epithelium w/ mucuous-secreting cells everywhere else |
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What is the submucosa? What is it made of?
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external to the mucosa
areolar connective tissue containing a rich supply of blood and lymphatic vessels, lymphoid follicles, and nerve fibers which supply the surrounding tissues of the GI tract wall abundant in elastic fibers (allows stomach to regain its shape) |
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What is the muscularis externa? What is it made of?
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surrounds the submucosa
responsible for segmentation and peristalsis has inner circular layer (squeeze things through) and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle cells (peristalsis) circular layer lengthens to form sphincters |
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What is the serosa? What is it made of?
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outermost layer (visceral peritoneum)
areolar CT covered with a single layer of squamous epithelial cells esophagus the serosa is replaced by a adventitia (ordinary fibrous CT that binds the esophagus to surrounding structures) |
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What tissues lines the mouth, what contributes to saliva, and what is broken down here?
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thick stratified squamous epithelium
saliva is produced by the salivary glands - composed of water, slightly acidic, salivary amylase, mucin, lysozyme, IgA mechanical and chemical digestion occur here - salivary amylase breaks down starches; lingual lipase breaks down fats |
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What are the two major regions of the tooth?
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crown - exposed part of tooth above the gingiva (gums)
root - unexposed part of tooth below the gingiva; embedded in the jawbone |
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What is the role of the pharynx? What is it made of?
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food passes into the oropharynx and then the laryngophrynx - they are just conduits for food
stratified squamous epithelium with mucus-producing glands |
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What is the esophagus, what is its purpose?
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muscular tube and is collapsed when not involved in food propulsion
conduit for food/fluid, no absorption and little digestion occurs |
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How does the esophagus' muscularis externa differ from others of the alimentary canal? The mucosa?
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upper third is skeletal muscle
middle third is a mixture of skeletal and smooth lower third is smooth muscle the mucosa is is stratified squamous until right before it reaches the stomach where is changes to simple columnar |
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What is the stomach? What is broken down here? What is food turned into?
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a temporary "storage tank" where chemical breakdown of proteins begins and food is converted to a creamy paste called chyme
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What are the four major regions of the stomach?
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cardiac - region where esophagus joins
fundus - superior region body - middle region pylorus - continuous with the duodenum of the small intestine |
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What are rugae?
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folds of the mucosa and submucosa
help with the churning of chyme and increase the surface area of the stomach |
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How do the muscularis externa and mucosal lining differ in the stomach?
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muscularis externa consists of three layers instead of two, the arrangement allows the stomach to not only mix, churn, and move food along the tract but also to pummel it; longitudinal, circular, and oblique layer
mucosa is simple columnar epithelia with goblet cells as opposed to stratified squamous |
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What are the four glands present in the stomach? What is their purpose?
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mucous neck - thin, soluble, acidic mucus
parietal cells - HCl (acidic) and and intrinsic factor (vitamin b12) chief cells - produce pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin) enteroendocrine - releases a variety of chemical messengers (histamine, serotonin, somatostatin, gastrin) |
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What are three reasons why the stomach does not digest itself?
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- thick coating of bicarbonate-rich mucus
- epithelial cells of the mucosa are joined together by tight junctions - damaged epithelial mucosal cells are shed and quickly replaced |
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What are the three phases of gastric secretion? What causes each?
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cephalic - aroma, taste, sight, or thought of food
gastric - distention, peptides, and low acidity intestinal - partially digested food fills the duodenum |
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What are the small intestines major functions?
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it is the body's major digestive organ; digestion is completed and virtually all absorption occurs
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What are the three subdivisions of the small intestine?
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duodenum - major activity occurs here
jejunum ileum - longest portion |
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What are the small intestines three structural modifications that help with absorption?
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circular folds - deep folds of mucosa and submucosa; force chyme to spiral through the lumen, slowing movement and allowing time for nutrient absorption
villi - fingerlike projections of mucosa which contain absorptive epithelial cells; core of each ville contains a lacteal microvilli - tiny projections on the villi; form the brush border and secrete enzymes which complete the digestions of carbs and proteins |
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What is the major function of the liver?
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main digestive role is to produce bile for emulsification and digestion of fats
largest gland in the body |
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What is the major role of the gallbladder? What triggers it?
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it stores bile from the liver and concentrates it by absorbing some of its water content and ions
released when the gallbladder is stimulated by CCK (cholescystokinin) |
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What is the purpose of the pancreas?
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an accessory digestive organ that is important because it produces enzymes that break down all categories of foodstuffs
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What is the epithelium of the small intestines? How is the mucosa and submucosa different from other organs?
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simple columnar absorptive cells
the mucosa contains Peyer's patches and the submucosa contains duodenal glands |
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What is the major function of the large intestine?
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absorb the remaining water, turn chyme into feces, propel feces forward to eliminate it from the body
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What are the major parts of the large intestine?
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cecum
ascending colon transverse colon descending colon sigmoid colon rectum |
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What is the epithelial tissue of the large intestine?
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simple columnar epithelium, except at the anus where it is stratified squamous, contains goblet cells that secrete mucus
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Seven ways in which the kidneys maintain the body's internal environment:
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- regulating the total volume of water in the body
- regulating the concentration of various ions in the ECF - ensuring long-term acid-base balance - excreting metabolic wastes and foreign substances (drugs & toxins) - Producing erythropoietin and renin - converting vitamin D to its active form - carrying out gluconeogenesis |
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Four components of the urinary system:
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kidneys
ureters urinary bladder urethra |
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What are the three layers of supportive tissues for the kidney? What are their purposes?
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renal capsule - fibrous, prevents infection from surrounding tissues
perirenal fat capsule - helps to attach to body wall and for protection renal fascia - dense fibrous CT, anchors the kidney and adrenal glands |
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What are the three distinct regions within the kidney?
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renal cortex - most superficial/outer layer
renal medulla - middle, contains renal pyramids and renal columns renal pelvis -funnel shaped tube that attaches to the ureter |
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What is the functional unit of the kidney? What do they do?
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the nephron - produces urine
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