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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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homeostasis
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variables are regulated so an internal condition remains stable
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link between anatomy and physiology
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function follows form
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to maintain metabolism, five factors needed
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water, food, oxygen, heat, pressure
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negative feedback
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a figure 8 with integrator (sums up info) in the middle, then sensor (measures), then effector (alters activity)
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positive feedback leads to
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instability
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examples of positive feedback
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child birth, blood loss, activation of voltage gated Na channels
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substrate feeders
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catapillar
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positive energy balance
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weight gain
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negative energy balance
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weight loss
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the three nutritional needs
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fuel (calories), essential nutrient (what we cannot make ourselves) and biosynthetic materials (carbon, nitrogen)
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energy balance=
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calories in / calories out
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set point for blood glucose levels?
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around 90 mg/dL
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high blood glucose leads to release of BLANK which BLANK which decreases blood glucose
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insulin which stores glucose
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low blood glucose leads to release of BLANK which BLANK which increases blood glucose
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glucagon which breaks down glucose
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what cells release insulin?
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beta cells in pancreas
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what cells release glucagon?
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alpha cells in pancreas
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what are the three appetite suppressors?
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leptin (released from fat tissue)
PYY (released from small intestine) Insulin (released from pancreas) |
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what caused mice to become hyperphagic?
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they did not produce leptin
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appetite stimulant?
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ghrelin (released by stomach)
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% of US adults overweight? obese?
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70%, 30%
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thrifty gene hypothesis?
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natural selection favored survival of individuals who could store as many calories as possible and burn them as slow as possible
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kwashiorkor
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results from malnutrition
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marasmus
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results from undernourishment
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specific hungers
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rise in responsiveness to specific food that one does not have enough of
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four types of essential nutrients
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amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals
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how many amino acids are there? for children?
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9 for adults, 10 for children
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complete source of amino acids?
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all animal products
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incomplete source of amino acids
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vegetarian or vegan diets
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vitamins are essential for what process
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metabolic reactions
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deficiencies in essential fatty acids result in
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infections, poor wound healing, and rashes
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fat soluble vitamins
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KADE
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macro molecules
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need more than 200 mg/ day (calcium, chloride, sulfer) for cell signaling!
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trace minerals
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need much less than 200 mg/day (cobalt, iron, zinc)
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deficiencies in what nutrients can lead to specific hungers?
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salt, calcium, fats
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four stages of nutrient processing
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ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination
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phagocytosis
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food particles taken in in intracellular digestion
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pinoytosis
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takes in everything, filters out for food
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crop
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storage where softening by liquid takes place
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typhlosole
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fold in intestine to increase surface area in a worm
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gastric ceca
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insect, bird storage area used to help break down plant materials
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mucin
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coast and protects oral cavity
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salivary amylase
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begins to break down carbs in mouth
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ulcers
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hole in stomach lining due to stomach juices because mucus is depleated
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what do stretch receptors do?
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give the sensations of feeling full
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three types of cells that make up gastric gland?
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mucus cells (secrete mucus)
chief cells (secrete pepsinogen) parietal cells (secrete HCl) |
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positive feedback that occurs in stomach
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activation of pepsin by pepsinogen and HCl
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duodenum
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part of the small intestine where most nutrient absorption happens
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jejunum
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part of the small intestine where nutrient and water absorption occur
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ileum
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part of small intestine where last things gets abosrbed
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where do carbs get broken down?
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in the mouth by saliva
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where do proteins get broken down?
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in the stomach and pancreas by pepsin
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where do nucleic acids get broken down
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small intestine
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where do fats get broken down
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bile from gallbladder and liver emulsifies fats in small intestine
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what are villi
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folds in lining of intestine
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microvilli
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fingers in the epithelial cells
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chylomicron
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transport lipids from the intestine to other parts of the body
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what is the purpose of villi and microvilli
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to increase surface area so more absorption can occur
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what types of nutrients are absorbed across the epithelial cells into the lymphatic system
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fats
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role of the colon
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reclaims water
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open circulatory systems
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hymolymph bathes tissues, returned by ostia
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single circulation
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fish (2 chambered heart)
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double circulation
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4 chambered heart
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atrioventricular valves
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go between atrium and ventricles
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semilunar valves
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end of ventricles when it goes out to the body
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stenosis
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failure of valves to open fully
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regurgitation
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failure of valves to close tightly
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diastole
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relaxation after contraction
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systole
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active contraction
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stroke volume
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volume of blood out of left ventricle
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p wave
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depolarization of atria
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QRS complex
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depolarization of ventricles
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t wave
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repolarization of ventricles
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depolarization
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contraction
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blood pressure
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determined by cardiac output and total peripheral resistance
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precapillary sphincter
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ring of muscle that controls whether blood flows through capillary beds or not
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metarteriole
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where blood flows if precapillary sphincters are contracte
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amount of blood pumped per minute
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5 liters
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what drives the cardiac cycle
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pacemakers
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SA node (sinoatrial node)
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70 beats per minute (fastest wins)
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AV node (atrioventricular node)
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45 beats per minute
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what can alter the heart rate of the pacemakers cells in the SA node?
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input from the nervous and endocrine systems
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total peripheral resistance determined by what?
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arteriole resistance
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arterioles are surrounded by
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smooth muscle that can contract or relax to store pressure
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what ways can materials cross a capillary?
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diffusion, endocytosis or exocytosis, diffusion through intercellular junctions, or specific transport proteins
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explain kwashiorkor
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it causes large bellies in fluid because their osmotic pressure is always less than blood pressure so the fluid flows out to circulatory system
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athersosclerosis
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hardening of the arteries
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hypertension
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high blood pressure (can lead to athersclerosis)
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four processes of respiration
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ventilation, gas exchange at lungs, transport in blood, gases exchange at tissues
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breath through body surface
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sponge, flatworm
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breath through skin
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earthworms, some amphibians
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tracheal systems
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air delivered straight to body cells (insects)
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respiration in aquatic organisms
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always moist, but not much oxygen
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spiracles
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openings on surface of body for small organisms that use the tracheal system
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positive pressure breathing
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open mouth, gulp air in, close nostrils- creates positive pressure pushing air down (frogs)
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negative pressure breathing
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diaphragm expands pulling air into lungs
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residual volume
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lungs do not collapse completely so there is old air- birds have a one way lung system so no old air
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role of respiratory pigments
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to increase the solubility of gases in aqueous solutions
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how much does hemoglobin increase the solubility of O2 in blood
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40X
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at rest, how saturated in hemoglobin?
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3 out of 4 spots are bound to O2
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what is the Bohr Shift
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anaerobic exercise means more lactic acid and a lower pH, so more O2 is released
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osmosis
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maintenance of salt and water balance in an organism
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hypoosmotic
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lower solute concentration
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hyperosmotic
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higher solute concentration
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osmoconformer
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isoosmotic with environment (only marine animals)
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osmoregulator
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must control internal osmolality (freshwater and terrestrial animals)
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stenohaline organism
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can withstand only narrow ranges of external osmolarity
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euryhaline organism
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can tolerate drastic changes in external osmolarity
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in marine animals, what osmo are invertebrates and vertebrates?
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invertebrates are osmoconformers, vertebrates are osmoregulators
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how do saltwater fish osmoregulate
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the drink a lot and pee a little
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how do sharks osmoregulate
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they are hyperosmolar to water so they loose none. this is because they kep urea in their body, and TMAO counteracts the toxins of urea
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how do freshwater fish osmoregulate
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they drink a little and pee a lot
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anhydrobiosis
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aquatic organisms that can survive without water (tardigrades)
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who do animals prevent water loss (4)
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keratinized skin, shells, exoskeletons, nocturnal behaviors
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how do land animals loose water
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perspiration, gas exchange, excretion
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define filtration
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excretory tubule collects filtrate from blood
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reabsorption
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transport epithelium reclaims needed substances from filtrate and it is returned to blood
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secrection
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unwanted compound extracted and added to filtrate
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role of the transporting epithelium
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reclaims needed substances from filtrate and returns to blood
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three things all excretory systems have in common
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tubular like structures, large surface area, ability to transport water, solutes, wastes
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total cardiac output of kidneys
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20-25%
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functional unit of kidney
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nephron
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pathway of blood through the heart
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vena cava leads to right atrium, first heart pumps into right ventricle through AV valve pulmonary artery(lungs) SL keeps blood from coming back into ventricles back to the heart through pulmonary veins into left atrium down into ventricles second pump shoots to rest of the body through aorta
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