Bio 150 Test Ii Ch. 10-12

Front 1

Always proceeds in 5'-3' direction
Leading strand-synthesized continuously
Lagging Strand-synthesized discontinuously, forms short okazaki fragments, DNA primase synthesizes RNA primers, DNA ligase links okazaki fragments, the 2 strands of DNA are anti-parallel

Back 1

DNA Synthesis

Front 2

Proofreads each new nucleotide

Back 2

DNA Polymerases

Front 3

Polymerase I functions as a repair enzyme that can add 10 nucleotides per second.
Polymerase II is the replicative enzyme and it replicates both the leading and lagging strands of DNA, it adds at 1000 nucleotides per second. These two enzymes are the enzymes in bacteria and they cure like comparable enzyme.

Back 3

Polymerases

Front 4

The probability of two independent events occurring together. Multiply the probabilities of each event occurring separately.

Back 4

The Product Rule

Front 5

A segment of DNA about 60 nucleotide pairs long links

Back 5

Nucleosome Beads

Front 6

Eukaryotic chromosome ends, non-coding, repetitive DNA sequences. Shortened slightly with each cycle. Can be extended by telomerase. The sequence of human telomeres is TTAGGG which is repeated more than 1000 times at the end of each chromosome.

Back 6

Telomeres

Front 7

Repairs DNA lesions-caused by sun(UV makes thymine dimers), harmful chemicals in the environment, 3 enzymes

Back 7

Nucleotide Excision Repair

Front 8

May be caused by absence of telomerase activity. Cells lose ability to divide after 50 divisions.

Back 8

Cell Aging

Front 9

Have telomerase, to maintain telomeres length

Back 9

Cancer Cells

Front 10

Each daughter double helix consists of one original strand from parent and one new complementary strand.

Back 10

Semi-Conservative Replication

Front 11

Genes on same chromosome

Back 11

Autosomal Linkage

Front 12

Epithelial cells go through cell cycle continuously. Bone marrow goes through cell cycle continuously and makes red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Central nervous system never goes through cell cycle. Cancer cells go through continuously and rapidly.

Back 12

Cell Cycles

Front 13

Compact DNA so it fits in nucleus 5 micrometers in diameter. Amount and length of DNA in a human cell: the diploid cell has 6x10^9 base pairs of DNA and the length of the DNA would be 2 meters long. Structure-146 base pairs of negatively charged DNA wound around core of 8 positively charged histone proteins. Keeps about 90% of the DNA inactive in any cell typer(organ). Only 10% of DNA is active.

Back 13

Nucleosome

Front 14

Do not have nucleosomes, they have naked DNA(no bound protein). Contain circular DNA molecules.

Back 14

Prokaryotes

Front 15

Help hold loops of DNA together. Fiberous and hold loops of DNA together with nucleosomes.

Back 15

The scaffolding proteins

Front 16

Transformation experiments-DNA of one strain of bacteria can transfer genetic characteristics to related bacteria. Pneumococcus-Strain R(rough) is nonvirulent, Strain S(smooth) is virulent. DNA single chain backbone-alternating sugar and phosphate groups. Joined by covalent phosphodiester linkages. Phosphate group attaches to: 5' carbon of one deoxyribose, 3' of next deoxyribose.

Back 16

Evidence for DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

Front 17

Structure is like a twisted ladder. Railings outside backbone of molecule:sugar-phosphate-sugar-phosphate.3'-5' covalent phosphodiester bonds between sugars. Rungs inside bases hydrogen bonds hold the two chains together. Adenine-Thymine:2 Hydrogen bonds. Guanine-Cytosine:3 Hydrogen bonds

Back 17

Double Helix

Front 18

2 nanometer diameter, constant width. purine base across form a pyrimidine base. Adjacent bases 0.34nm above and below. One complete turn 0.34nm. 10 bases per turn, right handed helix, two chains are anti-parallel.

Back 18

Double Helix (Characteristics)

Front 19

E. Coli grown in medium containing heavy nitrogen. Incorporated 15N to DNA

Back 19

Meselson-Stahl Experiment

Front 20

2 strands of double helix unwind, each is template for complementary strand

Back 20

DNA Replication

Front 21

DNA is in the nucleus of Eukaryotic cells, it is replicated in nucleus by DNA polymerase, replication of DNA is semi-conservative. It is replicated in S phase of cell cycle, the information on the DNA gene is in the sequence of DNA bases. Mutation-change in sequence of bases. DNA replication is very accurate, one error in 10^9-10^10 nucleotides replication.

Back 21

Summation

Front 22

Can a genetic trait be transmitted from one bacterial strain to another? Yes. Transforming Factor(TF) passed from the dead smooth to the live rough.

Back 22

Griffiths Transformation Experiment 1928

Front 23

Live R+DNA from heat killed smooth+RNAase->mice die. Live R+DNA from heat killed smooth+Protease->mice die. Live R+DNA from heat killed smooth+DNAase->mice live. Transforming factor in Pneumococcus bacteria is DNA. DNAase destroys TF

Back 23

Avery's Experiment 1944

Front 24

Is DNA or protein the genetic material in bacterial viruses(phage)? Bacterial viruses(bacteriophage T2)-50% DNA 50% protein No RNA. Radioactivity label the DNA with phosphorous. Radioactivity label the protein with Sulfur. Bacteriophage infects bacteria. They removed the phage with a blender and spun in a centrifuge. The (-32 DNA went into the bacteria in the pellet and the S-35 protein stayed up in the supernatant. DNA is the genetic material of the bacteriophage.

Back 24

Hershey-Chase Experiments 1952

Front 25

They developed the Double Helix model using using the data from these studies: Franklin-Wilkins, from xray diffraction DNA had a helical shape. Erwin Chargaff equal amounts of Adenine=Thymine, Guanine=Cytosine

Back 25

Watson and Crick 1953

Front 26

Dominant allele masks expression of a recessive allele, Phenotype is apperance, Genotype is genetic construction

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Genes Expression

Front 27

1. Individual has 2 alleles for each gene.
2. Two alleles seperate in meiosis.
3. Each gamete(egg or sperm) has only one allele for each gene.

Back 27

Mendel's Principle of Segregation

Front 28

Diploid individuals genes have pairs of alleles on homologous chromosomes. Homo-two same, Hetero-two different

Back 28

Gene Pairs

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The test for independent assortment

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Dihybrid Testcross

Front 30

46 chromosomes, 23 pairs of autosomal chromosomes. X-2500 genes, Y-15 genes.

Back 30

Genetic Numbers

Front 31

1. the dominant allele must show complete dominance
2. the 3 sets of alleles must show independent assortment

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Product Law Two Conditions

Front 32

Heterozygote is intermediate between the homozygotes

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Incomplete Dominance

Front 33

Color blindness and Hemophilia

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Sex-Linked Recessive traits

Front 34

22 pairs autosome, 1 pair sex, PKU, Cystic Fibrosis, Albinism, Tay-Sachs

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Autosomal Recessive

Front 35

Two haploid sex cells(gametes) fuse to form a single diploid zygote

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Sexual Reproduction

Front 36

1. 4 haploid cells each unique different from parent cell and each other.
2. crossing over and exchange, genetic recombination.
3. Mutation is ultimate source of genetic variation.
4. random distribution P+M chromosomes 4 combinations.

Back 36

Genetic Variation

Front 37

Interphase(23 of 24 Hours)
M Phase(1 hour) (mitosis + cytokinesis).
G1 (10hrs) (first gap phase)
S (9hrs) (synthesis phase)
G2 (4 hrs) (second gap phase)

Back 37

Cycle of cell division

Front 38

DNA is replicated, each chromosome is going to be two identical sister chromatids

Back 38

Interphase

Front 39

Divison of the nucleus into two identical nuclei, division of the chromomsomes must be exact, cytokinesis-division of the cytoplasm and cell organelles(approx 50/50)(telophase)

Back 39

M Phase-Mitosis (1hr)

Front 40

Growth and increase in cell mass, RNA syntheisis, protein Synthesis, duplicate organelles

Back 40

G1-Gap 1-(10hrs)

Front 41

Synthesis of DNA-all chromosomes are replicated. Synthesis of histone protein:bind to newly replicated DNA

Back 41

S phase-Synthesis (9hrs)

Front 42

Syntheisi of tubulin for microtublues of the spindle, cell membrane proteins and phospholipids(need more membrane)

Back 42

G2-Gap 2 Preparation for Mitosis (4hrs)

Front 43

Early:Chromatids shorten and thicken, coil up, become visible in the microscope. nuclear envelope begins to disappear. two pairs of centrioles(animal cells) move toward the poles and spindle fibers start to form.
Late: nuclear membrane and nucleolus break down, the microtubles of the spindle attach to the chromatids.

Back 43

Prophase

Front 44

Chromosomes line up in the middle, spindle fibers attach to kinetochores

Back 44

Metaphase

Front 45

The centromeres split between the sister chromatids-this is early anaphase. The separated sister chromatids are pulled to the poles by dissembly of the kinetichore microtubles. Late anaphase- separate chromatids are pulled into the shape of a "V" to reduce friction

Back 45

Anaphase

Front 46

Chromatids get to poles, nuclear envelope reforms from vesicles, nucleolus reappears

Back 46

Telophase

Front 47

Contractile ring of microfilaments actin+mysoin, attached in inside surface of plasma membrane-contract late telophase and pinch cell in half

Back 47

Cytokinesis in Animals

Front 48

Cell is divided by cell pleate made from the Golgi complex, starts in the middle and goes to the outside

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Cytokinesis in Plants

Front 49

Homologous chromosomes join(synapsis) crossing over-between homologous(nonsister) chromatids exchanges segments of DNA strands. Results in the genetic recombination synaptonemal complex0holds proteins together.

Back 49

Prophase I-Meiosis I

Front 50

tetrads/homologous chromosomes joined by chlasmata, line up on metaphase plate.

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Metaphase I-Meiosis I

Front 51

Homologous chromosomes seperate, distributed to different nuclei. each nucleus contains halpoid number of chromsomes. each chromosome has 2 chromatids

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Anaphase I-Meiosis I

Front 52

4 spermatids, haploid 23 singles, spermatagonia->primary spermatocyte->Meiosis I->secondary spermatocyte->Meiosis II->spermatids

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Spermatogenesis

Front 53

1 ovum, 3 polar bodies, all haploid. 23 pairs, all doubled. oogonia->primary oocyte->mieosis I->secondary oocyte->Meiosis II-> ovum/3 polar bodies

Back 53

Oogenesis

Front 54

7 weeks in uterus, gene is activated. protein->TDF(testies determining factor) development of testies->testosterone

Back 54

Sex Determining Region on Y chromosome