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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ovarian cycle
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Describes the series of events associated with the maturation and release of an oocyte
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Uterine cycle
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Describes the regular, recurring changes in the uterine lining that conclude with menstrual bleeding.
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Average length of reproductive cycle in US
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29.5 days (assume 28 for the test). Can range from 24-35 days depending on physical or psychological stress.
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Day 1 of the reproductive cycle
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Designated as the day on which the menstrual bleeding begins. FSH, LH, estrogen and progesterone are at their lowest
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Day 2-3 of the reproductive cycle
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The hypothalamus produces and releases sufficient GnRH to stimulate the pituitary gland to release FSH to initiate a new cycle
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Pre-ovulatory period
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Refers to the time between the end of menstrual bleeding and ovulation and typically occurs from day 6 to day 13 of a 28 day cycle
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Follicular phase
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Describes the events that take place in the ovaries
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Proliferative phase
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describes the events that take place in the uterus
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What do rising levels of FSH trigger in the pre-ovulatory period?
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Development of several primary follicles in the ovaries
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What do granulosa cells around the follicles begin to secrete in the pre-ovulatory period?
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Estradiol
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What do rising levels of estradiol cause during the pre-ovulatory period?
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Stratum basalis produces new, thick stratum functionalis, which results in the cervical mucus becoming thinner, and the lining of the vagina thickens and becomes more secretory
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What do rising levels of estradiol result in?
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Rising levels of estradiol exert positive feedback on the hypothalamus causing it to continue to produce and release GnRH.
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What does GnRH trigger?
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GnRH triggers the release of more FSH and the release of a surge of LH
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What is the effect of the surge of LH
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The surge of Lh causes meiosis 1 to resume and a primary oocyte will complete its reduction division to form a second oocyte
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How is the secondary oocyte formed?
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The Graafian follicle ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte (surrounded by the zona pellucid and corona radiata) and a polar body. Remnants of the Graafian follicle becomes the corpus luteum
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Post-ovulatory period
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Refers to the time between ovulation and the onset of menstrual bleeding and typically occurs from day 15 to day 28
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Luteal phase
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Describes the events that take place in the ovaries
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Secretory phase
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Describes the events that take place in the uterus
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How do the rising levels of progesterone secreted by the corpus luteum affect the body during the post-ovulatory period?
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The levels of progesterone exert negative feedback on the hypothalamus, inhibiting the secretion of GnRH. The absence of GnRH prevents the anterior lobe of the pituitary from releasing FSH and no additional ovarian follicles can develop
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How do the rising levels of estradiol and progesterone affect the body during the post-ovulatory period?
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Rising levels of estradiol and progesterone stimulate the development of the endometrium.
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What happens to the endometrium and uterine glands during the post-ovulatory period?
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The endometrium becomes spongier in appearance and more vascular. Uterine glands fill with nutritive glycogen in anticipation of a fertilized egg.
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GnRH
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Hormone responsible for the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.
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FSH
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Follicle stimulating hormone. Stimulates growth of Graafian follicles.
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LH
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Helps a woman's egg mature and develop. There's a surge of LH right before ovulation which triggers the egg's release from the ovary.
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Graafian follicles
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Fluid-filled structure in an ovary within which an ovum develops before ovulation
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What happens to the corups luteum if an egg does not get fertilized and implanted in the endometrium?
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The corpus luteum must be maintained to produce and secrete the hormones needed to sustain pregnancy. The corpus luteum will degenerate by day 25 of the cycle.
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Endometrium
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Mucous membrane lining the uterus, which thickens during the menstrual cycle in preparation for possible implantation of an embryo
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How is menstration triggered after the corpus luteum degenerates?
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Levels of estradiol and progesterone decline sharply, triggering menstruation
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Estradiol
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A major estrogen produced in the ovaries, controlling the growth of the female sexual organs and some functions of the uterus, and used to treat estrogen deficiency and breast cancer
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Progesterone
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Steroid hermone released by the corpus luteum that stimulates the uterus to prepare for pregnancy.
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How does the sharp decline in estradiol and progesterone trigger menstruation?
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Constricts the blood vessels that supply the endometrium of the uterus. The stratum functionalis starts to slough off and form the menstrual discharge.
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What does menstrual discharge consist of?
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Menstrual discharge consists of blood, uterine fluid, endometrial lining, vaginal cells and blood clots
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Approximately how much volume is total menstrual discharge?
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Between 50mL and 150mL
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How does the decline in estradiol and progesterone affect the hypothalamus?
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Removes negative feedback inhibition, GnRH is again produced and released to stimulate the release of FSH and LH to initiate a new cycle
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Amenorrhea
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Refers to the absence of menstrual periods in post-pubescent women that aren't pregnant
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What are some of the causes of primary amenorrhea?
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Commonly caused by chromosomal abnormalities or incomplete development of the ovaries or uterus. May also be caused by endocrine disorders or low body fat.
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Primary amenorrhea
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The failure to menstruate by age 18
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Secondary amenorrhea
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The absence of menstrual periods for six months or more in a woman who has already experienced menarche
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What are some of the causes for secondary amenorrhea?
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A significant reduction in weight and percentage of body fat causes GnRH to decrease secretion below levels needed for the menstrual cycle to continue. May be caused by pituitary glands or tumors that decrease FSH and/or LH, may be caused by ovarian tumors or polycystic ovarian disease that prevents the normal cycle of FSH and/or LH secretion, may be caused by sickness, chronic fatigue, poor nutrition, or stress
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Mittelschmerz
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Pain in the abdomen at the time of ovulation
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What causes Mittelschmerz pain?
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Irritation of nerves in abdominal cavity is caused by follicular fluid that is released when Graafian follicle ruptures.
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Premenstrual syndrome
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Refers to physiological, physical, and emotional symptoms that appear in a large number of women between 3 and 10 days prior to the start of menses
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Possible causes of PMS
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Edemas resulting from salt and water retention, tissue sensitivity due to changing levels of estradiol and progesterone, deficiencies in vitamin b12 or zinc
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Dysmenorrhea
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Pelvic pain and painful menstrual cramps during menstration
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Primary dismenorrhea
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No known cause
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Secondary dysmenorrhea
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Dysmenorrhea is caused by a known source, such as cysts or tumors. A preexisting condition, can be potentially be treated by surgery.
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What do menstrual cramps result from?
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Powerful contraction of smooth muscle of the uterus.
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How does prostaglandins in the blood affect menstrual cramps?
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Prostaglandins in the blood constrict endometrial blood vessels to help stop endometrial bleeding, but this reduces blood flow to the myometrium causing a reduction in oxygen levels so myometrium produces lactic acid which causes cramps
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LOOK UP
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MYOMETRIUM
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What are common treatments for menstrual cramps?
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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or prostaglandin inhibitors, such as ibuprofen, naproxen, aspirin, or acetaminophen
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Toxic shock syndrome
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Caused by staphyloococcus aureus, bacteria that invade the bloodstream from the skin and produce deadly toxins. Bacteria climb up a moist tampon string and enter bloodstream through striations in the vagina.
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Menopause
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Between 40-55, a woman produces declining amounts of estrogens and progesterone leading to cessation of menstruation. This is also known as perimenopause.
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How long must a woman stop menstruating for her to be considered "menopausal"?
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One year
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Chemically, how does menopause occur?
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As a woman grows older, her ovaries become less and less responsive to FSH and LH, even though production of these hormones increases
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What is the role of estradiol during menopause?
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Less estradiol is secreted because the number of primary follicles that begin to develop during each cycle decline. Low levels of estradiol don't exert negative feedback, so GnRH is secreted and the pituitary gland continues to release FSH and LH. Reduced levels of estradiol can't trigger an LH surge, so ovulation doesn't occur
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What is the role of estrogen during menopause?
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Less estrogen results in less proliferation of the endometrium
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How does the lack of the corpus luteum affect hormones during menopause?
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Produces less progesterone and periods become irregular
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What effects does the decline in estradiol have on the physical aspects of the body during menopause?
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Atrophy of breasts, labia, and vagina due
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How are hot flashes caused?
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Vasodilation of dermal vessels allow blood vessels to allow blood to rush to the skin
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What are osteoblasts?
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They deposit calcium and other minerals into bone
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What are osteoclasts?
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They remove calcium and other minerals into bone. Drugs inhibit this activity to help prevent osteoporosis)
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What is a common way to treat menopausal symptoms?
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Estrogen replacement. May cause an increase in breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and uterine cancer. May aggravate high blood pressure
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Who were the scientists who studied physiology of sexual intercourse?
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Masters and Johnson
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What are the four stages of sexual response?
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Excitement (desire, arousal). plateau, orgasm, resolution
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Excitement stage
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Limbic system - reward centers respond to stimuli we perceive pleasurable
Reticular activating system - being aware, states of consciousness Arousal of external genitalia |
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Plateau stage
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Physiological preparation for orgasm - excitement becoms enhanced, generally lasts a few minutes
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Orgasm stage
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Release of muscular tension, increased heart rate and blood pressure, breathing becomes shallow (panting). Reflexive, once it starts, you can't really stop it.
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Resolution stage
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Return to unstimulated state
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How is an erection caused during the excitement stage?
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The spinal cord releases nitric oxide into the blood. This chemical causes erections. Drugs like viagra stimulate release of this
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What happens to a penis during an erection?
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Arteries in penis dilate, blood flows into erectile tissue. As they fill with blood, the pressure increases, and blood stops flowing out to maintain the erection.
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Priapism
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Condition meaning a penis or clitoris will not go back to an unaroused state
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What do the bulbourethral glands do during the plateau stage?
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They secrete mucous
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Emission
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Sperm move into the urethra
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Ejaculation
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Sperm is forced out of the urethra and penis
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How does emission occur?
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Muscular contractions in the vas deferens propel sperm into the urethra to mix with secretions of the seminal vesicle and prostate gland to complete formation of semen
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Orgasm (male)
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Release of muscle tension usually accompanied by a discharge of semen. 5-6 strong contractions of the root of the penis forcefully expel semen
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How does semen in the urethra result in ejaculation?
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Nerve signals sent to the prostate gland and seminal vesicles cause them to release more fluid into the urethra. Muscles in the skeletal muscles of the urogenital diaphragm and the base of the penis contract to forcefully expel semen out of the urethra. Entire process lasts 3-15 seconds.
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What are the first physiological signs of arousal in a female during the excitement stage?
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Increased blood flow causes vaginal walls to become dark red or purple. Vaginal sweating (transudation) also happens. These occur 10-30 seconds following the onset of sexual stimulation.
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What do Bartholin's glands do during the excitement stage?
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They secrete mucus near vaginal orifice
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What happens to the uterus during the female excitement stage?
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Becomes engorged with blood and moves away from the bladder
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What happens to the vestibular bulbs during female plateau stage?
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They swell with blood, reducing the diameter of the outer one-third of the vagina to form an orgasmic platform
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What is the orgasmic platform, and what happens to it during the plateau stage?
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Bottom third of vagina, it tightens as vestibular bulbs swell from excitement
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What happens to the uterus during orgasm?
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Strong contractions of smooth muscle in the uterus cause cervix to plunge spasmodically into the vagina
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What is female ejaculation?
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Some women may secrete fluid from Skene's glands during climax. Fluid contains PSA (prostate specific antigen). It may be triggered by stimulation of Grafenberg spot
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What occurs during the resolution stage for a female?
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Blood leaves engorged tissues of vagina, orgasmic platform disappears. Uterus returns to its normal position. Blood leaves external genitalia. Respiratory rate, heart rate, and blood pressure return to pre-arousal levels. Women have no refractory period and may be multiorgasmic, unlike males.
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Who is Alfred Kinsey?
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Alfred Kinsey studied how people experience and respond to sexual stimuli and how they express themselves as sexual creatures. The concepts of human sexuality are learned. He wrote a book about this including sexuality in children and apparently got the information from a child molester.
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How much money do americans spend on adult entertainment per year?
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10 billion dollars
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Conceptus
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The pregnant woman's developing offspring
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Gestation period
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The time during which development occurs. It extends from the menstrual period through birth, approximately 280 days
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Preembryo
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Refers to the conceptus for 2 weeks following fertilization. The conceptus is undergoing preembryonic development
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Embryo
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Refers to the conceptus from 3rd to 8th week after fertilization, known as embryonic period
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Fetus
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Refers to the conceptus from 9th week to birth. This period of time is the fetal period.
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How long does it take before freshly ejaculated sperm can fertilize an egg?
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It takes 6-8 hours for the head to be able to penetrate the egg
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What is the acrosomal reaction during fertilization?
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Enzymes in the head of the sperm cell are released and the enzymes bore through the zona pellucida
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When is meiosis 2 completed during the fertilization process?
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When the nuclei of the sperm and egg join
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When does the zygote undergo the first mitotic division?
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30-36 hours post implantation, the zygote undergoes the first mitotic division to form two blastomeres
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Blastomeres
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Different cells derived from cleavage. They form a compact mass called the morula.
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Cleavage
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The division of cells in the early embryo.
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Morula
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Cell divisions over the next 72 hours produce a solid ball of cells. 3-4 days to uterus.
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Blastocyst
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4 or 5 days post fertilization, blastomeres form a hollow ball of cells called a blastocyst, and the zona pellucida disintegrates
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Cavitation
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A process producing a fluid filled cavity called the blastocoel.
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Blastocoel
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Fluid filled cavity of a blastosphere
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Compaction
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A process creating an outer layer of small cells called a trophoblast
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Embryoblast
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Larger cells inside the trophoblast form an inner mass known as this. It will eventually become the embryo.
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Describe the blastula's journey.
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Cleavage begins as the zygote moves through the oviduct toward the uterus. Mitotic divisions produce a ball of sixteen to thirty-two cells called a morula. By the fifth day, a blastula has formed, with a surface layer of cells surrounding a fluid-filled blastocoel and an inner mass. After a week, implantation is under way. The blastocyst adheres to the endometrium that lines the uterus and begins to send out projections into the maternal tissues. The inner cell mass develops into an embryonic disk that is two cell layers thick.
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What are the two layers of the trophoblast?
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The syncytiotrophoblast and the cytotrophoblast
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Syncytiotrophoblast
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Forms an external layer without intercellular boundaries, and its cells form cords infiltrating the endometrium. (next to the endometrium)
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Cytotrophoblast
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Irregular layer of ovoid, mono-nucleated cells and lies directly below the syncytiotrophoblast.
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Ectopic pregnancy
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Tubal pregnancies are common and tend to occur in women whose fallopian tubes are obstructed or scarred. The blastocyst implants outside of the uterus.
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When is directionality established in the embryoblast?
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About 9 days after following fertilization (each cell knows where to go)
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What is gastrulation?
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Primary germ layers are formed from embryoblasts (different cells kick in)
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Endoderm
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Linings and glands of digestive tract, respiratory system and reproductive tract
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Mesoderm
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Muscle, bone, cartilage, blood
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Ectoderm
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Skin, hair, nails, and much of the nervous system
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How long does embryogenesis take?
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By day 16 post fertilization it's complete and the embryo is 2mm long
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Amnion
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Develops from the ectoderm and mesoderm and completely surrounds the embryo.
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Amniotic sac
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Results from amnion, fills with amniotic fluid to cushion and protect developing embryo
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Yolk sac
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Develops from embryonic disc from a pouch that hangs below the embryo (mothers give nutrients, not yolk sac) - produces the first embryonic blood cells
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Allantois
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Develops from the endoderm that forms a small pouch at the trail end of the yolk sac. Forms the foundation for the umbilical cord and becomes a part of the urinary bladder
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Chorion
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Developes from mesoderm that was produced from the trophoblast. Forms the outermost membrane that encloses the embryo and all other membranes. Finger-like projections called chorionic villi penetrate the endometrium (in contract with deepest part of endometrium) and branch to help form the placenta (blood vessels developed from fetus inside villi)
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Placentation
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Removal of waste, gives oxygen, 3 nutrients to fetus, endocrine organ
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When does the placenta begin to form?
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During the second week following fertilization from maternal tissue.
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