Bio 110 Exam #2 Cmu

Front 1

Energy

Back 1

The ability to do work or transfer heat

Front 2

Metabolism

Back 2

Sum total of all chemical reactions that occur in organisms

Front 3

Catabolic Pathway

Back 3

Release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds

Front 4

Anabolic Pathway

Back 4

Consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones

Front 5

Substrate-level phosphorylation

Back 5

Direct transfer of a phosphate group to an ADP from a donor (Less energy is made in this way)

Front 6

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Back 6

Utilizes redox reactions and an electrochemical gradient of H+ to produce energy (More energy is made in this way)

Front 7

Photosynthesis Reaction

Back 7

6CO2 + 6H2O --> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Front 8

Thylakoids

Back 8

Disks containing chlorophyll, electron transport molecules, & enzymes

Front 9

Stroma

Back 9

Space between grana

Front 10

Biochemical Pathway

Back 10

Series of redox reactions linked together

Front 11

Cellular respiration

Back 11

Chemical breakdown of food molecules into usable energy

Front 12

Where do Light Reactions take place?

Back 12

Grana (thylakoid membrane)

Front 13

Where does the Calvin cycle take place?

Back 13

Stroma

Front 14

Excited electrons are picked up by ________ when they lose their energy (how many are picked up by each of these?)

Back 14

NADP+ ; 2 electrons each

Front 15

When H2O is broken down into H+ and OH- ions, H+ is attracted to NADP+ to form ______

Back 15

NADPH

Front 16

What are the products of the Light Reactions?

Back 16

NADPH, O2, ATP

Front 17

Stroma

Back 17

Thick fluid of the chloroplast where Calvin Cycle takes place

Front 18

What are the reactants of the Calvin Cycle? (What is used to begin the cycle?)

Back 18

CO2 & it combines with RuBP

Front 19

What products of the Light Reactions power the Calvin Cycle?

Back 19

ATP & NADPH

Front 20

What is the important product of photosynthesis that is produced after the Calvin cycle?

Back 20

G3P

Front 21

Cellular respiration definition

Back 21

A metabolic pathway; a series of chemical reactions in cells that catabolizes organic molecules to harvest energy

Front 22

Equation of Cellular respiration

Back 22

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H20 (+ATP)

(Opposite of photosynthesis!)

Front 23

4 steps of Cellular Respiration

Back 23

1. Glycolysis

2. Intermediate Step

3. Kreb's cycle (Citric acid cycle)

4. Electron-transport chain (Oxidative phosphorylation)

Front 24

Glycolysis

Back 24

Breaks down the 6-carbon sugar into smaller molecules, yielding pyruvate

Front 25

Intermediate step

Back 25

Converts pyruvate from glycolysis into Acetyl CoA

Front 26

Kreb's Cycle (Citric acid cycle)

Back 26

Completes the breakdown, begins with Acetyl CoA

Front 27

Electron-transport chain (Oxidative phosphorylation)

Back 27

These reactions are used to form the bulk of the ATP produced by an organism

Front 28

Folds on the inner membrane are called ______

Back 28

cristae

Front 29

Internal fluid inside the mitochondria is called the _______

Back 29

matrix

Front 30

Where does glycolysis occur? Is glycolysis aerobic or anaerobic?

Back 30

cytoplasm ; anaerobic

Front 31

Step One of glycolysis (Energy Investment)

Back 31

First 5 reactions that convert the starting molecule of glucose into two 3-carbon molecules called G3P ; uses ATP

Front 32

Step 2 of glycolysis (Energy Harvest)

Back 32

Second 5 reactions that begin with the two G3P molecules and converts them into pyruvate; ATP is made by substrate-level phosphorylation

Front 33

What is the net gain of ATP of Glycolysis?

Back 33

2 ATP, but NADH will produce more later

Front 34

Intermediate step

Back 34

Pyruvate made in glycolysis enters the mitochondrian where it's oxidized into Acetyl CoA

Front 35

What are the products of the Intermediate step?

Back 35

2 molecules of Acetyl CoA, 2 molecules of CO2, and 2 NADH

Front 36

Where does Citric Acid cycle take place?

Back 36

In the matrix of the mitochondrian

Front 37

Quick Summary of Citric Acid Cycle (not necessarily to be answered, just helpful)

Back 37

Acetyl CoA is oxidized which forms CO2 & electrons are passed to electron carriers NADH & FADH2.

2 ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.

Electrons are transferred to 6 NADH & a similar molecule, 2FADH2.

The last 4 carbons from the glucose are lost as 4 CO2.

Front 38

Where does Electron transport (during Electron-transport chain/Oxidative Phosphorylation) occur?

Back 38

Across the inner membrane of the mitochondria (Most of the ATP is made here)

Front 39

What two molecules transfer electrons to the Electron Transport chain? (hint: these are both involved in the Citric Acid cycle)

Back 39

NADH & FADH2

Front 40

Electrons are eventually passed to what molecule, reducing it to H2O?

Back 40

Oxygen (O2)

Front 41

Approximately how many ATP are made during the electron-transport chain?

Back 41

26-28 ATP

Front 42

Quick summary of Electron-transport chain (Not necessarily answered, just helpful)

Back 42

Electrons release energy as they are passed down the chain, causing H+ to move out of the matrix.At the end of the chain, electrons are transferred to O2, reducing it to H2OApproximately 26-28 ATP molecules are produced by ATP synthase by the process of chemiosmosis.

Front 43

Reactants of photosynthesis

Back 43

CO2 & H2O

Front 44

Products of photosynthesis

Back 44

C6H12O6 & O2

Front 45

What are the other processes by which cells can produce ATP without oxygen? (Anaerobic processes)

Back 45

1.Anaerobic respiration

2. Fermentation

Front 46

Anaerobic respiration

Back 46

A catabolicprocess where inorganicmolecules other than oxygen accept electrons atthe end of the electron transport chain

Front 47

Fermentation

Back 47

A catabolic process that harvests a limited amount of ATP from glucose without the use of an electron-transport chain

Front 48

What are the two types of fermentation?

Back 48

1. Alcohol fermentation

2. Lactic acid fermentation

Front 49

Alcohol fermentation

Back 49

Pyruvate is reduced to ethanol through a series of steps, releases CO2

Front 50

Lactic acid fermentation

Back 50

Pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid through a series of steps, does not release CO2

Front 51

Is meiosis a form of sexual or asexual reproduction?

Back 51

Sexual

Front 52

After meiosis, an organism inherits how much of their DNA from each parent?

Back 52

1/2 from each parent

Front 53

What is another name for sex cells used in Meiosis & what are the two sex cells that are used?

Back 53

Gametes; Sperm & egg cell

Front 54

Gametes have how many chromosomes? What percent is this of normal (somatic) body cells?

Back 54

23 chromosomes, which is half the number of somatic cells

Front 55

Term for the resulting cell when a sperm fertilizes an egg

Back 55

Zygote

Front 56

What is a cell called that has 46 chromosomes? (two "sets" of 23 chromosomes)

Back 56

Diploid

Front 57

What is a cell called that only has one set of 23 chromosomes?

Back 57

Haploid

Front 58

Two chromosomes that make a matched pair in a diploid cell are referred to as _____________ chromosomes

Back 58

Homologous

Front 59

The process of Meiosis makes the ________ cell

a. Haploid

b. Diploid

Back 59

Haploid

Front 60

The process of Fertilization makes the ________ cell

a. Haploid

b. Diploid

Back 60

Diploid

Front 61

How many times does a diploid cell divide in order to form 4 haploid cells during Meiosis?

Back 61

Twice

Front 62

The two separate divisions in Meiosis are called what? (not a trick question)

Back 62

Meiosis I & Meiosis II

Front 63

Meiosis I results in the production of ________ (#) cells, each of which has ________(#) the number of chromosomes as a regular body cell

Back 63

2 cells ; 1/2

Front 64

In Meiosis II, those two cells divide to produce _____(#) cells, each of which has _______(#) the number of chromosomes

Back 64

4 cells ; 1/2

Front 65

_________ occurs when the nuclei from sperm and egg cells fuse to form the zygote

Back 65

Fertilization

Front 66

What is the benefit of sexual reproduction compared to asexual reproduction?

Back 66

Sexual reproduction allows for genetic variation, which gives the zygote produced a new combination of characteristics different from both parents and all other offspring

Front 67

3 Different causes of genetic variation

Back 67

1. Independent Assortment

2. Random Fertilization

3. Crossing over

Front 68

Independent assortment

Back 68

Every chromosome pair orients independently of the others during meiosis.

Front 69

Random fertilization

Back 69

The human egg cell is fertilized randomly by one sperm, leading to genetic variety in the zygote

Front 70

Crossing over

Back 70

Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information

Front 71

Potential problems in meiosis (Not necessarily answered, just helpful)

Back 71

In Nondisjunction, the members of a chromosome pair fail to separate during anaphase & gametes with an incorrect # of chromosomes are produced.

Also, if the gamete takes place in fertilization, a zygote with the wrong # of chromosomes in produced.

Ex. Down Syndrome is a condition where an individual has an extra chromosome 21 (Also referred to as trisomy 21)

Front 72

Who was the first person to investigate the patterns of inheritance?

Back 72

Gregor Mendel

Front 73

Units of information (a piece of DNA) about specific traits, each located at a particular locus on a chromosome are called _______

Back 73

Genes

Front 74

Diploid cells have how many genes for each trait?

Back 74

2 for each trait, one on each homologous chromosome

Front 75

Gametes have how many genes for each trait?

Back 75

1 for each trait

Front 76

Various alternative forms of a gene for the same trait are called ________

Back 76

Alleles

Ex. One allele of the gene for flower color is purple flowers, and another one for flower color is white flowers

Front 77

When homologous chromosomes have different alleles for a gene, it is called __________

Back 77

Homozygous (condition)

Front 78

When homologous chromosomes have different alleles for a gene, it is called ___________

Back 78

Heterozygous (condition)

Front 79

The allele that is expressed in a heterozygous condition is said to be the ___________ allele

Back 79

Dominant

Front 80

The allele that does not get expressed in a heterozygous condition is said to be the _________ allele

Back 80

Recessive

Front 81

How is a dominant allele expressed? How is a recessive allele expressed?

Back 81

Dominant = A (Uppercase letter)

Recessive = a (lowercase letter)

Front 82

The genes present in an organism are called the ___________

Back 82

Genotype

Front 83

The expression of the traits (visible, physical characteristics) in an organism are called the ____________

Back 83

phenotype

Front 84

The two members of a homologous allele pair separate from each other during ___________ of Meiosis

Back 84

Anaphase I

Front 85

Which trait would be dominant in this case for flowers?

a. P for purple flower

b. p for white flower

Back 85

a. P for purple flower

Front 86

What gametes can the two organisms PP and pp produce?

Back 86

PP - can only produce dominant P gametes

pp - can only produce recessive p gametes

Front 87

What is the expected genotype ratio for the cross of a homozygous dominant PP purple flower and a homozygous recessive pp white flower?

Back 87

100% heterozygous genotype of Pp

Front 88

What is the expected phenotype ratio for the cross of a homozygous dominant PP purple flower and a homozygous recessive pp white flower?

Back 88

100% Purple flowers (All offspring will have the heterozygous Pp condition and express the dominant allele)

Front 89

What are two other patterns of inheritance?

Back 89

1. Incomplete dominance

2. Codominance

Front 90

Incomplete domincance

Back 90

A dominant allele cannot completely mask the expression of another.

Ex. Red flowers mixed with white flowers will produce pink flowers

Front 91

Codominance

Back 91

Two different alleles of a gene are both expressed in the organism

Ex. Brown haired horse and white haired horse will produce a horse with both brown & white hairs on it

Front 92

How many different alleles are expressed in human blood?

Back 92

3 different alleles,

Ia

Ib

i

Front 93

In human blood, which alleles are codominant to each other, and which allele is recessive?

Back 93

Ia and Ib are codominant to each other.

i is recessive to both Ia and Ib

Front 94

Most genes actually control more than one trait, meaning that a gene has multiple phenotypic effects, which is called _________

Back 94

Pleiotropy

Front 95

What is it called when the phenotypic expression of a gene at one locus alters the expression of a gene at a second locus?

Back 95

Epistasis

Front 96

What is it called when a trait is not determined by a singe gene, and expressed a range of phenotypes?

Back 96

Polygenic Inheritance

Examples - Human height, eye color, & skin color

Front 97

Many characteristics result from a combination of heredity and ___________

Back 97

Environment

Front 98

Summary of sex-linked traits (Not necessarily answered, just helpful)

Back 98

Genes on the X chromosome show different patterns of inheritance because males only receive 1 X chromosome.

Males only get 1 gene for each of the traits on the X chromosome.

Males more frequently express these recessive traits than females, because they only have 1 X chromosome.

Examples of conditions resulting from sex-linked (X-linked) genes: Red-green color blindness & Hemophilia

Front 99

DNA is termed a ________ _______, and contains what 4 bases?

Back 99

nucleic acid ;

Adenine (A)

Thymine (T)

Guanine (G)

Cytosine (C)

Front 100

Each DNA is composed of what 3 parts?

Back 100

1. Sugar (deoxyribose)

2. Phosphate group

3. Nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G)

Front 101

The phosphate end of one nucleotide is joined by what type of bond?

Back 101

Covalent bond

Front 102

The two strands of DNA are joined together by what type of bond?

Back 102

Hydrogen bond

Front 103

The phosphate end of the DNA is termed the (1)________ end, and the sugar end of the DNA is termed the (2)________ end.

a. 3'

b. 5'

Back 103

(1). 5'

(2). 3'

Front 104

Is RNA single or double stranded?

Back 104

Single stranded

Front 105

What sugar does the RNA have that DNA doesnt?

Back 105

Ribose (not deoxyribose)

Front 106

What nitrogenous base does RNA have that differs from DNA?

Back 106

Uracil (U) instead of Thymine (T)

Front 107

The process that causes chromosomes to go from having a single DNA molecule to having two sister chromatids (two DNA molecules) is called ___ __________

Back 107

DNA Replication

Front 108

3 steps of DNA replication

Back 108

1. Two parental strands separate, catalyzed by DNA Helicase

2. Free complementary nucleotides attach by hydrogen bonds to the parental strands

3. Covalent bonds form between the nucleotides on the new strands, catalyzed by DNA Polymerase

Front 109

Replication that results in DNA molecules that consist of one "old" strand and one "new" strand is called _________ ___________

Back 109

Semiconservative replication

Front 110

What enzyme breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two DNA strands to separate them?

Back 110

DNA helicase

Front 111

What enzyme cuts and rejoins the DNA downstream of the replication fork, relieving the tension created as DNA unwinds?

Back 111

Topoisomerase

Front 112

What enzyme synthesizes a short RNA segment that serves as a primer for DNA synthesis?

Back 112

Primase

Front 113

The ___________ of DNA is synthesized continously, while the other DNA strand called the ____________ in synthesized discontinously?

Back 113

Leading Strand

Lagging Strand

Front 114

The lagging strand is synthesized as short fragments called

Back 114

Okazaki fragments

Front 115

What is the ability to remove incorrectly added nucleotides from DNA called? (Used by Polymerase)

Back 115

Exonuclease activity

Front 116

An organisms ________ (it's genetic makeup) is the sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA

Back 116

Genotype

Front 117

Transcription occurs in the ________ of a cell

Back 117

Nucleus

Front 118

Internal non-coding regions are called ________

Back 118

Introns

Front 119

Internal coding regions are called _______

Back 119

exons

Front 120

Translation involves what 3 things?

Back 120

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

3. Ribosomes

Front 121

A ________ is any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

Back 121

Mutation

Front 122

What are 2 types of mutations?

Back 122

1. Base Substitutions

2. Insertions & Deletions

Front 123

Base substitution

Back 123

Replacement of one nucleotide by another, some have no effect, some have dramatic effects referred to as Missense mutations

Front 124

Insertions & deletions

Back 124

When an extra nucleotide is inserted or deleted in a sequence

Front 125

Undifferentiated cells that exist early in embryonic development are called

Back 125

Embryonic Stem cells

Front 126

As development continues in the early stages of embryonic development, they __________

Back 126

Differentiate

Front 127

Differentiation

Back 127

The type of cell that a stem cell will become is set and cannot be changed

Front 128

The primary regulatory mechanism in eukaryotes is the regulation of ____________

Back 128

Transcription

Front 129

Transcription must be turned on by an _________ ________ when the gene product is needed

Back 129

Activator protein

Front 130

In our bodies, cells can receive messages from other parts of the body that can turn on or turn off the expression of certain genes, which is called ____ ____________

Back 130

cell signaling

Front 131

The first mammal cloned was in the year _______ and the animal was a ________

Back 131

1997; sheep

Front 132

Animal cloning

Back 132

The nucleus from an egg cell is removed and replaced by the nucleus from an adult cell, and is called nuclear replacement

Front 133

What is the benefit of an embryonic stem cell and why is it advantageous for scientists to harvest them?

Back 133

Embryonic stem cells are undifferentiated, meaning they can induce the stem cells to produce any specific type of cell that could be used for the repair of injured or diseased tissue

Front 134

Cancer-causing viruses carry specific genes called _________. Cells can also acquire these by a mutation to one of their own genes

Back 134

Oncogenes

Front 135

Genes that inhibit cell division to keep rates at the proper level that help prevent uncontrolled cell growth are called _______ _________

Back 135

Tumor-supressor (Genes)

Front 136

Cancer is always a genetic disease because it always results from changes in DNA, which is why it is termed ________ _________

Back 136

"Inherited" cancer