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140 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Competency 001
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The bilingual education teacher understands the foundations of bilingual education and the concepts of bilingualism and biculturalism and applies this knowledge to create an effective learning environment for students in the bilingual education program.
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BE in the Colonial Period
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13 colonies were founded by ppl from diff L backgrouds: English, German, French, Dutch, Swedish, and Welsh. This is why an official language of the nation was left out of the constitution. With this and the 10th amendment, L and ED. was left up to the states.
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BE: 17th-19th centuries
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From the 1600s-1800s, multiple Ls were used as the L of instruction in schools. 2nd half of 19th century, parochial and public schools were instructing in dual Ls. Military conflict that restricted immigrantion of speakers of the colonial Ls. Without the linguistic support of new immigrants, they stopped using their heritage L, English emerged at the National L, and BE as official policy disappeared.
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BE in the 20th Century
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During 1st part of 20th C, new immigrants from SE Europe arrived with many Ls. They were expected to Americanize and learn English. By 1919, 15 state laws called for English only instruction. ELLs were subjected to punishment if caught speaking their native L.
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BE in 1920-1960
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"Sink or Swim" approach: ELLs sumbersed in English without any kind of consistent support in L1. In 1940, English as a foreign L was developed as a field of study at the University of Michigan. (By 1960s turned into ESL)
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What document published in 1953 provided the foundation for the rebirth of dual L instruction?
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The Use of the Vernacular Language in Education by the United Nations (UN). "It is axiomatic that the best medium to teach a child is his mother tongue."
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What event paved the way for modern bilingual education programs?
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Cuban Revolution in 1959 and the resulting mass exodus of Cubans to the US. Using funds for the relocation of Cuban refugees, the US govt sponsored the creation of the 1st dual L prog of the 1960s in Dade County, FL. FL guided other states like TX, which in '64 began experimenting with BE.
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Civil Rights Act of 1964
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Passage provided the momentum needed to secure federal support for BE. One component of legislation, Title VI, prohibits institutions receiving fed. funding from discriminating on grounds of race, color, or national origin. This was the foundation for many court cases that emerged in the 70s.
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Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA)
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Enacted by Congress in 1965. Included Title I that helped children of low socioeconomic backgrounds. In '68, Title VII (The BE Act) was added-provided funding for programs to address the needs of ELLs. These remained until 2001 when they were replaced by the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB).
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Regulation by the ESEA legislation: Key Changes
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Regulated for 31 yrs.
'68: law did not mandate BE but provided $ for support. '73-'74: BE was officially mentioned as the model to address the needs of ELLs. '78: Specified the transitional nature of the prgm which led to the creation of early-exit transitional BE. '84: Promoted developmental/maintenance BE. '94: ESEA legislation was renamed the Improving America's School Act and School Reform. Allowed the participation of English prof. students and opened the door to two way dual L prgms. More $ for development/maintenance BE and to prepare B teachers. |
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No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act
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Replaced the ESEA in 2001 and contains 2 components: Title 1 and 3 (formerly Title VII).
T1: hire highly qualified teachers T3: BE Act was renamed the English L Acq, L Enhancement, and Academic Achievement Act that allows for local flexibility in the implementation of programs. |
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Key provisions of NCLB legislation
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-Consolidate services and $ for L minority students with the Emergency Immigrant ED Prg.
-Local ED Agencies (LEAs) responsible for EN L growth of ELLs. They can choose the method of instruction schools use to teach ELLs. -Parents have a role of child's placement in special L pgrms. -Require school districts to use 95% of funding for direct instruction of ELLs. -Establish mandatory testing in EN for reading and LA for ELLs if they've attended US schools for at least 3 consecutive yrs. -Accountability for effective instruction of ELLs. |
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What are AMAOs?
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Annual measurable achievement objectives: monitor student progress in attaining EN prof and notify parents if the prgm fails to meet its AMAOs for 2 consecutive yrs.
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7 most important federal court cases in BE
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Serna v. Portales ('72 &'74)
Lau v. Nichols ('74) Aspira v. New York ('74) Rios v. Reed ('77) Castaneda v. Pickard ('81) US v. State of TX ('81 & '82) Plyler v. Doe ('82) |
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Serna v. Portales ('72 &'74)
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'72: Federal court mandated the Portales district in New Mexico to implemet a bilingual-bicultural curriculum, revise assessment procedures to monitor Hispanic students' academic achievement, and recruit bilingual personnel.
Portales appealed, but the 10th US District Court of Appeals upheld the decision in '74. |
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Lau v. Nichols ('74)
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Kinney Lau representing 1, 790 Chinese students that sued San Francisco school district because there was no support for these children that were failing because they didn't understand EN. The court did not specify a remedy and left it up to the district- they agreed to provide a bilingual-bicultural ED.
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What ruling became the de facto tool for the implementation of BE in the US?
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Lau v. Nichols
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Aspira v. New York ('74)
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Aspira, a comm.-based org sued City of NY seeking relief for the large # of ELLs in the city. The Lau ruling was handed when this case was being heard and the district agreed to implement district wide BE.
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Rios v. Reed ('77)
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Program quality was put to the test. Fed. Court ruled that the Patchogue-Medford District in NY violed the rights of ELLs by providing a "half-hearted" B prgm without the bicultural component. This ruling called for the use of L1 instruction for the content areas while developing EN prof.
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Castaneda v. Pickard ('81)
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Program Quality was addressed. District in Raymondville, TX was charged with violating the Equal Education Opportunities Act (EEOA) of '74. 5th Court of Appeals madated a 3 step process to develop quality BE prgms.
-Must be based on sound research -Adequate resources -Opportunities for students to have access to full curriculum |
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US v. State of TX ('81 & '82)
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US District Judge William Wayne Justice ordered TX to offer BE for Mexican American students in K-12. It was reversed a yr later. The governor had a BE task force that helped draft the Senate Bill 477 which is the current BE law in TX.
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Plyler v. Doe ('82)
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Ruling guarantees the rights of undocumented immigrants to free public eduction.
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Why was California's Proposition 187 declared unconstitutional?
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Because the proposition was supposed to have school personnel report to law enforcement about the children unable to prove their legal immigration status. It was declared unconstitutional because of the ruling of Plyler v. Doe. Immigration is a federal responsiblity and not the state's.
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Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of '64
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Prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in any program receiving federal funding.
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Office for Civil Rights Memorandum of '70
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To school officials nationwide, requiring that districts offer appropriate instruction to address the educational needs of language minority students.
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Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) of '74
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Prohibits states receiving federal funds from denying equal educational opportunity to ppl based on race, color, sex, or national origin. Unlike Title VI, the EEOA applied to all schools not just those receiving federal funding.
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Lau Remedies in '75
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OCR used the OCR memorandum, the EEOA, and the Lau ruling.
-Students must not be assigned to classes for the mentally retarded based on L development in EN. -Mandated BE for elementary schools and ESL for older students. -Guidelines for exiting students -Professional standards for teacher participation Eliminated in 1980 by the Reagan administration for being unreasonable. |
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English-only movement
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In 1981, Senator S. I. Hayakawa of CA declared EN the official US L and to eliminate BE. 24 states have passed legislation banning dual L instruction.
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English-plus movement
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Founded by the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) and the Spanish American League Against Discrimination (SALAD) as a reaction to the English-Only Movement. Led to increased funding for BE in '94.
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In 2000, US Sec. of ED endorsed dual L ED and that we need to encourage bilingulism in all young ppl.
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Bilingual & Education Training Act (Senate Bill 121)
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Signed in 1973 by TX Governor, Dolph Briscoe. It mandated BE from grades 1-6.
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TX: Senate Bill 477
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1981: State's current BE law. Mandated BE through elementary grades, bilingual or ESL for middle schools, and ESL for high schools.
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TX and BE in 1918
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TX instituted the English-only rule. ELLs were submerged in English-only instruction. Some coped and learned English, many dropped out of school.
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TX & BE in 1920
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Schools in Southern TX began offering home-based reading and writing instruction in Spanish-the Escuelitas program. This program was active until the 1960s.
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TX & BE in 1964
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Under the leadership of Superintendent Harold Brantley, the Laredo School district was the 1st to offer BE. Soon San Antonio, McAllen, and El Paso followed.
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TX & BE in 1969
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Rep Carlos Truan and Senator Joe Bernal helped enact HB 103 that ended the English-only legislation. The bill allowed BE through grade 6.
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TX & BE in 1973
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19 school districts in TX received Title VII (ESEA 1965) funding to implement BE programs. SB 121 amended the TX Education Code to allow the establishment of the 1st BE and Training Act which mandated BE from grades 1-6 only.
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TX & BE in 1981
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SB 477 expanded BE or Special L Programs for children in K-12. BE was mandated through the elementary grades, BE or ESL for middle schools, and ESL for high schools students.
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Chapter 89 Commissioner's Rules
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The commissioner of ED, with the State Board of ED, has issued rules guiding the implementation of the state's ED laws. Titled the Commissioner's Rules Concerning State Plan for Education Limited English Proficient Students.
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Home Language Survey
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New students to the district are required to complete a home L survey. Two questions: What L is spoken in your home most of the time? What L does your child speak most of the time? If the answer to either question is anything besides English, the child must be tested for L dominance or proficiency.
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Screening for Admission to the Program
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K-2 are tested using an oral L proficiency test like Woodcock Munoz Language Survey or the Language Assessment Scales (LAS). Grades 3-12 take an oral proficiency test, can take the TAKS, and a norm-referenced test. The Language Proficiency Assessment Committee (LPAC) makes placement decisions within 4 wks of inital enrollment.
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What makes up a Language Proficiency Assessment Committee (LPAC) ?
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At least one Administrator,teachers, and a parent representative. Committee regulates admission, treatment, dismissal, and follow up services to stundents in BE or special Language programs.
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Testing for reclassification as a fluent English speaker
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Students must demonstrate oral and written proficiency by passing the appropriate L proficiency tests and one of the following: score of 70% or above on the reading and writing component of TAKS; Scoring at the 40th% on the reading and ELA sections of a state approved norm-referenced test.
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What's the earliest grade for reclassification as a fluent English Speaker?
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Once in the program, students cannot be exited in grades K-1, until 2nd grade.
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Two year Monitoring Services of a reclassified fluent English speaker
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Will be monitored for 2 years to ensure success in an English-only classroom. The LPAC evaluates the student's performance in class and the results of the TAKS to measure progress. If a student is having academic problems, the LPAC can return the child to the BE or ESL program.
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Bilingual Education in the World
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More countries are bi/mulitlingual, but fewer than 25% officially recognize more than 1 L. Official bi/mulitlingual countries:
Canada: French & English Belgium: Flemish, French, & German Finland: Finnish & Swedish Ireleand: English & Hebrew Israel: English & Hebrew Singapore: Chinese, Malay, Tamil, & English S. Africa: Afrikaans & English Switzerland: German, French, Romansh, & Italian |
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Transitional Bilingual Education Program (TBE)
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This program promotes literacy in L1 and instruction in L2 in K-2 with at least 45 mins of ESL instruction. Transition to ENG begins in 3rd grade and by 4, students are mainstreamed or placed in a class using the sheltered ENG approach.
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Early-Exit Transitional BE programs
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Pgrm of choice for most school districts in US. Main goal is to mainstream students as quickly as possible.
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TBE program characteristics:
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- Perceived as remedial or compensatory program
- Teachers water down the curriculum - Research shows that the development of the academic ENG needed to handle content area takes longer than the time allocated in this program - Long term success requires longer bilingual time |
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Late-Exit Dual Language Programs
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Offer 4 or more yrs of treatment. Originally designed for K-12, but most programs are implemented through 5 or 6 grade.
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Two types of Late-exit programs
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-Developmental Bilingual Education(DBE)
-Dual Language Immersion Programs |
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Developmental BE (DBE)
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Emerged in the 70s as an alternative to TBE. Also known as maintenance BE or bilingual-bicultural education or one-way BE. Encourages the maintenance of their native L and add ENG to function in both Ls.
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Comparing TBE & DBE
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Length of program, Orientation, Literacy in L1
TBE: 2-3 yrs; Remedial and subtractive; Not enough time to become proficient in L1 so there's not transfer of L skills to L2. DBE: 4-5 yrs; Enrichment and additive; allows more time to develop proficiency in L1 so L1 literacy skills transfer to L2 |
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Two-way dual language immersion
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Form of DBE because it promotes the maintenance of L1 & L2. Serves L majority (native ENG speakers) and L minorities (ELLs) where both groups learn from each other.
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Program Implementation by Content
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Some of the content is given in L1 and other in L2. This is done by:
-Team teaching: One teacher in L1 and one in L2 (this discourages code switching because they know which teacher speaks which L) -Single Teacher: alternates the Ls across the disciplines, must guide students to separate the Ls. More code switching. |
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Program Implementation by Time Percentages
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For two-way programs:
-Balanced Program: 50/50 Model, equal instruction in L1 and L2; 2nd most popular model in US (33%) -Minority/Majority: 90/10 or 80/20, largest % done in minority L, the amount of instruction in majority L increases until reaches 50/50 by 3rd or 4th grade. Most popular model (42%). -Combination: Native ENG speakers grouped together for instruction in ENG and Native SPN speakers receive instruction in SPN. They're brought back at the end of the day for dual-language instruction. Least popular (2%) |
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Formats for the dual-language program
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-Half day alternating: Morning lessons in one L and afternoon lessons in the other.
-One day alternating: One full day in ENG and one in SPN. Not ideal for students with limited proficiency in one of the languages, they may miss too much content. |
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Canadian Immersion Programs
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Initiated in Montreal in the 1960s for native ENG (maj) speakers to be immersed and learn French (min). Literacy is developed in FRN and later in ENG. ELA begins in 2nd grade and increases until it reaches 50/50 in 3rd. Then ENG increases until 60% by 6th. In 7-12, FRN courses are offered to maintain their proficiency.
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ESL
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Perceived as compensatory and transitional. Used to maintain 2 educational settings:
-Component of BE; in early exit TBE ESL used to move students from native L instruction to ENG; in late exit ESL used to develop ENG proficiency needed to receive instruction in a dual L format -ESL used as a program where BE is not feasible because of the large # of foreign Ls spoken. Program is used to support instruction while students develop ENG proficiency to function in the all ENG classroom. |
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Self-contained Model of BE
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Content instruction in L1 and at least 45 mins of ESL to promote ENG L development. A variation of this is when one teacher "pulls out" the child to provide ESL instruction: ESL Pullout
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ESL Pullout
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One of the 1st approaches to teach ENG to ELLs. Students are mainstreamed and are "pulled out" for 1 or 2 periods for ESL. Most expensive and least effective.
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Shortcomings of ESL Pullout
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-When ELLs are pulled out, they miss classes and can fall behind academically
-Students do not receive support in their native Ls so they're not guided to transfer knowledge from L1 to L2 -Children might feel embarrassed for being pulled out from the mainstream program to a program viewed as remedial and compensatory. |
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Structured English Immersion (SEI)
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Through a study called Baker and de Kanter Report, they found TBE to be ineffective. The researchers studied the French bilingual immersion programs in Canada and proposed a similar program to replace TBE. SEI is subtractive not like the additive nature of the Canadian Bilingual immmersion programs. Uses "sheltered instruction": teacher delivers instruction in ENG and uses techniques to simplify and contextualize instruction so children learn content and L concurrently.
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Sheltered English or ESL content
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Developed in the 80s, attempts to make academic instruction in ENG understandable while promoting ENG L development. Teachers use hands-on activities, concrete objects, simplified speech, and physical activities to teach concept develpment in content areas. Used mostly at the secondary level and is most effective for students with intermediate to advanced proficiency in ENG.
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Two of the better known Sheltered English or ESL Content programs
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CALLA model developed by Chamot and O'Malley for secondary students and the SIOP model by Echevaria, Vogt, and Short for elementary and secondary levels
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Newcomer Centers
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ESL is used to support ELLs in their linguistic and cultural adjustment. Designed mostly for students in middle and high school, but today it's also used in elementary. Some provide intensive ENG L development and others provide sheltered ENG approach to keep up academically while developing ENG proficiency. Students remain in center for a year or less before they're mainstreamed.
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American Institutes For Research (AIR) Study
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1978: first and one of the largest national studies on the effectiveness of federally sponsored Title VII programs. Compared ELLs in BE program and Latino studens in the all-English program. The study found few differences but BE proponents challenge the study's methodology and found flaws.
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Flaws identified in the AIR study by BE proponents.
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-Did not control for the type or quality of BE program, but labeled them all "bilingual."
-Did not take into account the type of district, its program needs, and the availability of qualified bilingual teachers. -Background variables like level of initial language were not controlled or held constant. -Many of the students in the English program were children exited from the bilingual prog. |
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Ramirez Study
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1992 study sponsored by the US government comparing the efeectiveness of three program models: early exit (TBE), late exit (Developmental TBE), and structured English immersion (SEI). A preliminary report showed that students in DTBE were outperforming the SEI students. The final report said that they could not compare the 3 models, but compared SEI and TBE.
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Ramirez Study Findings
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When comparing SEI and TBE, they found no significant differences in student performance in math, reading, and English L acquisition as measured by the Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS). TBE and SEI showed growth from 1st-3rd grades, but the growth began to decline as the grade levels increased. DTBE showed continued growth and accelaration. They seemed to be gaining on students in the general population.
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Thomas and Collier Study in 1997 and 2002
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Examined the performance of ELLs in the various programs: early-exit, late-exit, and ESL models.
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Key Findings of the Thomas and Collier Study
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- There are key predictors of academic success that overcome factors such as poverty at home, a school location in an economically depressed region, or a regional context where the ethnolinguistic group has traditionally been underserved.
- Delivery of cognitively complex on grade level academic instruction through L1 (at least to grade 5 or 6) and with L2 for part of the school year have a definite impact in the achievement of ELLs. - As they reach the upper grades of elem. school, students in two-way BE outperform their counterparts being schooled monolingually, and they sustain the gains all the way through high school. |
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Programs for ELLs to catch up academically with monolingual English speaking peers.
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Accelerated Learning & Critical Pedagogy
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Accelerated Learning
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Emerged from the work of Levin (1987). Relies on enrichment strategies taken from the gifted-and-talented programs. Uses relevant and authentic applications, problem solving, and active learning.
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According to the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL) the accelerated learning concept is based on the following cardinal principles:
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-Learning environments with high expectations for ALL students
-Identification of achievement gaps and setting deadlines for eliminating them by the end of elementary school. -Implementation of an interdisciplinary curriculum that emphasizes hands on activities, critical thinking, and the use of problem sloving using real-life situations. -Meaningful involvement of parents, and empowerment of teachers. -The language and culture of minority students incorporated in daily school activities and used as teaching tools. |
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Critical Pegagogy
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Emerged from the work of a Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire (1970). Students become active learners and participants in their own reality by: identifying real-life problems, reflecting on them, gathering information, sharing it with peers, and collectively finding solutions. Students develop a deep and relevant knowledge of life, develop problem-solving skills, and become protagonists in their quest for knowledge and discovery.
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According to Martin Ryder (2005) from the University of Colorado, what concepts have their origins in critical pedagogy?
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Student-centered learning, negotiated curriculum, and differentiated curriculum
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3 strategies used in Bilingual Education
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Reciprocal Teaching, Preview-Review Approach, and Concurrent Approach
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Reciprocal Teaching
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Teachers and students engage in dialogue about class content by using 4 strategies:
-Summarizing: Main content in their own words -Question Generating: Students design questions to test their own knowledge about the most significant content (Guided to use Bloom's Taxonomy) -Clarifying: Guided to identify parts of the text that might create comprehension problems related to technical vocab, idiomatic expressions, and concepts. They are taught to seek support, ask ?s, or use reference materials to help them understand. -Predicting: Guided to predict the content based on prior knowledge and the knowledge they've accumulated from reading. Then they read to see if their predictions were correct and to link new knowledge to knowledge they already had. |
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Preview-Review Approach
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Traditional Approach: teacher introduces the content in one L and the body of the lesson in the other L. Can be reviewed by grouping students by language dominance, with reinforcement activities conducted in L1, or by using the concurrent approach.
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Concurrent Approach
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Traditional approach where both languages are used for instruction. Requires a special ability to provide equivalent content rather than literal translations. Teachers must have a strong knowledge of content area terminology in both Ls. This strategy is rarely used in modern dual language programs.
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Terminology for bilingual education & linguistically diverse students
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http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/expert/glossary.html
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Key Principles of Competency 001
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-Include English L versions of stories, folktales, etc from the students' home culture to validate and affirm those cultures.
-Structured English immersion programs in US are designed mostly to teach ELLs. -Benefits of the additive nature of DBE are cultural reinforcement and continued cognitive growth in L1 that enhances student learning and reinforces cogntive dev in L2. -Simultaneous translation can hinder L dev in L2 -Strategies to promote biliteracy and biculturalism should incorporate materials from the students' native cultures and readings in L1 -Maintenance BE provides most extensive instruction in L1 |
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Key Principles of Competency 001-Continued
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-For assessment, using translated materials cannot eliminate cultural differences btwn the student schemata and materials tested.
-A requirement of the Individuals with Disability Act of 1997 is that tests for ELLs be developed free of racial or cultural discrimination -BE has shifted from early exit to late exit models because students who develop cognitive and academic skills in L1 are more likely to succeed academically in the all-English classroom -Primary goal of BE programs established as a result of the 1968 Title VII: is to promote the development of ELP. |
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Key Principles of Competency 001-Continued
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-Students who develop cognitive-academic skills in L1 have a better chance of succeeding academically
-A student that has mastered Spanish TAKS, but is not ready to study content areas in English should be allowed to stay in the BE program by the LPAC -BE program should present the learning of English as an additive component vs a replacement of L1 -To improve their chances of achieving academic parity with native ENG speakers, ELLs should receive content area and LA instruction in L1 and L2 for at least 6 years. |
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Competency 002
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The beginning bilingual education teacher understands processes of first and second language acquisition and development and applies this knowledge to promote students' language proficiency in their L1 and L2
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Components of Language
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Language is composed of subsystems: phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon, discourse, and pragmatics.
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Phonology
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Study of the sound systme of the language.
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Phoneme & Grapheme
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Basic unit of sound. English has 44 phonemes (sounds) represented by 26 graphemes (letters). An English phoneme can be represented by more than one grapheme, and often the grapheme-phoneme correspondence is inconsistent.
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Digraphs
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Consonant digraphs: two or more letters representing one sound: gh, kn, gn, pn, rh, sc, wr, sch, wr, ps, -ght
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In respect to grapheme-phoneme correspondence, why does English present some problems for ELLs.
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Spanish has a very consistent correspondence where as English does not. Spanish has 26 graphemes to represent 25 to 27 sounds. Except for h, every letter is pronounced. In English: the word through has 7 graphemes, but only 3 phonemes.
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Morphology
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Study of the structure of words or word formation.
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Morphemes
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Words are made up of units of meaning called morphemes. Example: Cars=two morphemes: car (root word) + s (plural). Morphemes are classified into two large catergories: derivational and inflectional
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Derivational Morphemes
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Morpheme that can (but may not) change the syntactic classification. These are loans from foreign languages, usually Greek or Latin and can be used as prefixes and suffixes. Example: subconsciously contains: consci (root word) + 3 derivational morphemes. 1st (sub) is the prefix morpheme, 2nd is (-ous) the adjectival suffix morpheme, and the 3rd is (-ly) the suffix that creates an adverb. Changing the word subconscious to subconsciously changes the word from an adjective to an adverb.
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Inflectional Morphemes
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Do not change the syntactic classification and typically follow derivational morphemes. There are 8 types of inflectional morphemes.
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What are the 8 types of inflectional morphemes?
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-present participle (-ing)
-3rd person singular (-'s) -plural (-s, -es) -regular past tense (-ed) -past participle (-en) -comparative (-er) -superlative (-est) Taking great to greater (adding the comparative -er does not change the syntactic classification: both are adjectives) |
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Syntax
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Describes the organization of words in sentence. English has specific syntactic rules to account for the grammaticality of the sentence, the order of words and morphemes, structural ambiguity, and the grammatical and logical relations within sentences.
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7 Most Common Sentence Structures in English
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Lexicon, Semantics, Denotation, Connotation, Discourse, and Pragmatics
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Lexicon
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The vocabulary of language. The most changeable component of language. Words can change meaning based on context. Example: hot can refer to spicy, temperature, fashion, or luck depending on the context of usage.
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Semantics
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Meaning system of a language and is based on the culture and context of the conversation. It uses literal and implied meanings to achieve this goal.
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Denotation
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Refers to the literal meaning of words and ideas: Sign that says "Dog bites" seems obvious because all dogs have the capability of biting (literal meaning). Pragmatics will guide ppl to go beyond the literal meaning to understand the dog is aggressive and might attack.
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Connotation
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Refers to the implied meaning of words and ideas; like idiomatic expressions where speakers need to know the implied cultural framework to understand them. Example: passing the buck
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Discourse
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The ability of speakers to combine sounds into words, words into sentences and larger units in a cohesive manner to achieve oral or written communication. The cohesive devices used in L1 might be differenct from the ones required in L2.
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Pragmatics
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The role of context in the interpretation of communication. Pragmatics describes the hidden rules of communication shared by native speakers of the language. Often these rules are not evidents to ELLs.
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Cognates
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Words pronounced and spelled similarly in two languages. Cognates were developed as a result of the association of modern languages with classical ones like: Arabic, Greek, and Latin. Because of the influence of these 3 cultural groups- Arab, Greek, and Roman-in math, science, and social studies, many cognates are used in these subjects.
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False Cognates
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Word that resembles a word in a second language but has a differenct meaning. Example: embarrass and support resemble the Spanish words embarazar (get pregnant) and soportar (tolerate).
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Stages of Language Development
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Language learning appears to come from a combination of innate ability and environmental influences. Children have to be exposed to language in natural settings to acquire it. Imitation is a learning strategy through age 2. Then comes the creativity stage where children conceptualize the function of the past tense but overgeneralize like "I goed home." Parents that allow their child to participate in adult conversations come to school with stronger language skills. Children expect language to make sense. They test language rules through hypothesis testing until they finally decipher the linguistic code and master the language.
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Theories of L1 & L2 Acquisition
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-Behaviorists, Innatist, and Interactionists
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Behaviorist Theory for L1 Acquistion
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Behaviorist: Children are born with a clean slate-tabula rosa- and L is added through imitation by the process of stimulus, response, reinforcement. Children hear a word, imitate it, and get rewarded. This explains the imitation stage, but not the linguistic creativity. Example: Parent tells their 3 yo: "You stink" and the child says "I stink," the child is not just imitating, but processing and hypothesizing language rules.
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Innatist Theory of L1 Acquisition
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Or nativist theory: take the opposing view that children are born with innate capabilities for L learning. They believe children are born with what Noam Chomsky called language acquisition device (LAD). The LAD is equipped with a grammar template that enables children to construct grammar of their native L through hypothesis testing. They develop rules of their L with minimal support from their parents. The role of adults is to build the lexicon of the L and teaching rules to develp sociolinguistic competence.
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Interactionists Theory of L1 Acquisition
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Prevailing theory to explain L1 acq: Remphasize the importance of both nature and nurture. They conceptualize the existence of the LAD but believe the role of adults is to adjust L to facilitate L acq. Parents scaffold converstion by repeating and modeling the words the child produces, checking for understanding by asking ?s, and by making the child feel confident in his/her ability to communicate.
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Behaviorists' Views of L2 Acquisition
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Process of habit formation through the use of stimulus, response, and reinforcement and developed an audio lingual method. They promote memorization of dialogue and pattern drills. Errors are corrected immediately to avoid the formation of bad linguistic habits, and reinforcement is used to maintain the correct structures. This method influenced L2 teachings in the 50s and 60s but ended in the late 70s.
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Innatists' Views of L2 Acquisition
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Creative Construction Theory: L2 learners follow similar strategies and make the same kind of errors as native speakers in the process of L mastery. Following these principles, Krashen developed a comprehensive theory of L2 acquisition with 5 hypothesis.
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5 hypotheses of Krashen's theory (Innatists' Views in L2 acquisition)
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-Acquisition vs. Learning
-Comprehensible Input -The Monitor Hypothesis -Affective Filter Hypothesis -Natural Order Hypothesis |
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Acquisition versus Learning
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Acq. is a natural L interaction with speakers of the L with no conscious efforts to comply to grammar conventions. Characterized by L discovery in a low anxiety environment. Acq is informal and resembles the way native speakers acquire their L. Learning describes the formal and highly restrictive activities typically found in a teacher-centered classroom instruction. Implementation that resembles the process of L1 acq can promote L2 acq. Teachers need to use inductive teaching and promote L development through fun and interactive activities that lead to self-discovery
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Comprehensible Input
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Children must understand the content of the communication to acquire the L, but the input must be slightly above the current linguistic level of the learner. Teachers need to implement activities in contextualized situations to ensure ELLs understand the content. ESL methods shoudl attempt to recreate the way that children acquire L1 like Total Physical Response (TPR) and Natural Method (NM), which both use commands, concrete objects, and highly contextualized situations to make L comprehensible.
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Monitor Hypothesis
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Learners exposed to formal L instruction develop an internal mechanism allowing them to assess L and make corrections, but they must have explicit knowledge of the rules and time to apply them. Teachers can guide students to internalize the rules so they become automatic and subconscious. Conscious knowledge of the rules is good to monitor writing samples.
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Affective Filter Hypothesis
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Students perform better when they feel motivated and relaxed. When they're relaxed, their affective filter is lowered allowing linguistic input in the LAD. Teachers should create a low-anxiety environment. They should not force students to speak before they're ready and allow them to remain silent but provide them with comprehensible input to develop the L needed for oral communication.
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Natural Order Hypothesis
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ESL students acquire English structures in a predictable sequence. The sequence is guided by the value of the structure and the frequency of required usage. Teachers should avoid following grammatical sequence and should encourage students to use various structures. The needs of the learners will determine the acq sequence of the language structures.
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Interactionists' Views in L2 Acquisition
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Krashen's concept of comprehensible input (CI) is an important part of this view. They emphasize the way native speakers deliver CI and the way they negotiate meaning with ELLs. Teachers should encourage nonverbal communication, drawing, and modified speech to deliver CI. They should allow for ELLs to interact with native speakers and negotiate meaning in real-life situations.
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Stages in L1 Acquisition
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-Babbling Stage (0-10mos):
-Holophrastic (11-18mos): One word stage -Telegraphic Stage (18 months and up) -School Age |
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Babbling Stage (0-10 mos) in L1 Acquisition
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-Sends and receives messages
-Uses reflexive crying to communicate -Produces vowel-and consonant-like sounds -Identifies the voice of parents and family members -Understands intonation patters (anger, statements, questions) |
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Holophrastic Stage (11-18 mos) in L1 Acquisition "One Word Stage"
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-Understands word concepts
-Conceptualizes complete ideas through one-word sentences -Uses adults as tools |
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Telegraphic Stage (18 mos and up)
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-Conceptualizes whole sentences
-Uses the minimum number of words to get the point across --Uses content words with high semantic values (nouns, verbs, adj, etc.) -Conceptualizes and imitates the reading and writing processes |
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School Age Stage in L1 Acquisition
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-Improves language skills through explicit instruction (deductively)
-Formal teaching is introduced -Learns the social functions of the language -Develops a personal communication style or idiolect -Gets exposed to different registers (dialects) |
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Stages in L2 Acquisition
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-Preproduction or Silent Stage
-Early Speech Production -Speech Emergence -Intermediate Fluency -Advanced Stage |
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Preproduction or Silent Stage in L2 Acquisition
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-Communicates with gestures and actions
-Lacks receptive vocabulary & shows problems comprehending messages -Some prefer to remain silent (silent phase) -Might experience frustration and anxiety -Relies heavily on nonverbal communication, which can lead to miscommunication |
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Early Speech Production Stage in L2 Acquisition
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-Increases comprehension
-Communicates using yes or no and one-word statements -Expands receptive vocabulary -Understands language in contextualized situations |
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Speech Emergence Stage in L2 Acquisition
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-Communicates in phrases using words with high semantic context: nouns, verbs, and adjs.
-Continues gaining receptive vocabulary -Communicates more effectively in contextualized situations, face-to-face interactions -Understands more than what he/she is able to communicate |
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Intermediate Fluency Stage in L2 Acquisition
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-Communciates using simple sentences
-Overgeneralizes because of intralingual and interlingual interference -Becomes more acculturated and feels more comfortable in school |
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Advanced Stage in L2 Acquisition
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-Develops the academic language and might be ready to be mainstreamed
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Interdependence of L1 and L2
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A strong cognitive and academic development in L1 has a positive effect in the acq. of L2. Academic skills and content knowledge, literacy development, and metacognitive strategies transfer to L2. Cummins calls this interdependence the common underlying proficiency (CUP). This concept has been used as an argument in favor of BE.
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Age & L2 Acquisition Hypotheses
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-Critical-Period Hypothesis
-Threshold Hypothesis |
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Critical-Period Hypothesis
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-From 2 yrs to puberty
-During this period, the lateralization of the brain occurs & L functions are assigned to specific parts of the brain. This mostly affects the the dev. of native-like pronunciation. -Children have an advantage over adults in the dev. of pronunciation, but adults master more abstract components of the L and overall L proficiency. |
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Language Ego
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Adults can develop a language ego which might affect their willingness to seek contacts with native speakers to practice the language.
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Threshold Hypothesis
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Cummins (91) believes that L learners should arrive at a given academic and literacy level in L1 before attempting to transfer elements of it to L2.
-Usually reached after 4-5 years of effective instruction in L1 -This theory explains why ELLs taught only in L2 may experience academic difficulties vs. those in a late-exit program who could have a cognitive advantage over monolingual students. |
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Levels of L2 Proficiency
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-American Council for the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) identified levels of oral proficiency.
-Novice -Intermediate -Advanced -Superior |
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Novice Level
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-Communicates minimally with memorized materials
-Able to list and responds briefly to questions regarding words and phrases that have been memorized: (colors, numbers, foods, etc.) -Experiences difficulties in producing sentence-type utterances, and encounters difficulties in being understood by native speakers -Productes discrete words and phrases but mgiht not be able to put them together coherently -Teachers should use strategies from the physical response and natural methods to deliver comprehensible input. -Active listening, hands on, group activities -Teachers should NOT correct and students need help developing the functional vocabulary |
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Intermediate Level
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-Creates Language by combining or recombining learned elements
-Asks and answers ?s as well as initiate and minimally sustain conversations about familiar topics: home, school, friends, etc. -Can be understood by sympathetic learners and listeners, even though the student is likely to make grammatical errors -Produces discrete sentences and strings of sentences. -Teachers should continue providing contextualized instruction and avoid direct correction. -Use repetition or clarification, modeling, exaggeration -Instruction should begin with ?s that can be answered with yes/no and either/or answers |
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Advanced
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-Progresses from sentence-level utterances to paragraph-length connected discourse
-Narrates and describes present, past, and future, activities -Talks about various concrete topics: personal background, family, travel, etc. -Expresses facts, reports accidents, but has a hard time supporting an opinion -Teachers should guide students in developing oral and written narratives, analyzing their work, and self-correcting. Technical vocab should be discusses before the reading. -Identify sounds that can cause L interference and begin polishing pronunciation |
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Superior
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-Participates effectively in most formal and informal conversations on topics connected to practical, social, professional, and abstract concerns
-Supports opinions and hypothesizes about abstract topics, offering detailed narration and description with native-like discourse strategies -Functions effectively with most native speakers -Produces extended discourse -Teachers should continue expanding academic vocabulary development and polishing pronunciation. Because fluency can be deceptive at this level, teachers should check for comprehension continuosly |
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