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300 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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neurons
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-functional unit of the nervous system
-specialized for the reception, conduction and transmission of electro-chemical signals |
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dendrite
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collect incoming info
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cell body
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integrating info
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axon
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transmitting info
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synapse
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between sending and receiving neurons
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dendrites
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receive incoming info from target neuron
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cytoplasm
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cytosol and organelles
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nucleus
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contained in nuclear envelope
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gene expression
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23000 human genes
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transcription
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mRNA assembly
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translation
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assembly of proteins from 20 amino acids
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cell body/soma
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provides metabolic (energy) and synthetic (protein) support
acts to "gate" info flow to and from other neurons integrates signals from many sources of input (integration zone) |
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neuronal cytoskeleton
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structural support for maintenance of neuronal shape
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microtubles
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responsible for moving material around cell
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neurofilaments
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provide structural support to axon
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microfilaments
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may assist in reorganization of neuronal branches
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cell membrane
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-defines boundary of cell
-intracellular/extracellular -double layer of lipid (fat) molecules -contains protein molecules |
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protein molecules
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Receptors
Channels Transporters |
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sodium-potassium pump
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-large protein embedded in cell membrane
-pumps 3 Na+ ions out for every 2 K+ ions it pumps in -energy dependent- requires ATP -uses 20-40% of brain’s total energy consumption |
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two basic cellular processes
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1. Protein synthesis
2. Energy production |
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dendritic tree
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-collection of dendrites from single neuron
-receives input from other neurons (input zone) -inputs may number in the thousands |
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dendritic spines
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-contact pt between axon and dendrite
-sensitive to type and amount of synaptic activity -Dynamic: synaptogenesis can occur on rapid time scale -external and internal factors influence spine morphology and density |
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dendrites
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collect electrical signals
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cell body
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integrates incoming signals and generates outgoing signals to axon
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axon
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-passes electrical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell
-starts at the axon hillock where axon merges with cell body -conducts action potentials (conduction zone) -branches to form axon collaterals -one axon vs. many dendrites |
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axon diameter
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-varies substantially across species
-diameter related to speed of signaling |
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myelin
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provides insulation, allowing for faster signaling
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nodes of ranvier
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-bare space of axon membrane
-ions move through channels only at nodes |
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local circuit neurons
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short axons
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projection neurons
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very long ions
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collaterals
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branches that arise from axons
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terminal
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swelling at end of axon collateral
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terminal contains....
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mitochondria
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synaptic vescicles contain...
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neurotransmitter
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synapse
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-junction between the axon terminal and the somatic or dendritic membrane (spine) of another neuron
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3 principle components of synapse
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presynaptic membrane, postsynaptic membrane, synaptic cleft
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shape of neurons
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-monopolar
-bipolar -multipolar |
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function
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-motor
-sensory -interneuron |
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pyramidal cell
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in cerebral cortex
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purkinje cell
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in cerebellum
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motor neuron
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-in spinal cord, with axons extending to muscles and glands
-carries commands to muscles and glands |
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bipolar neuron
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location: retina, cochlea, olfactory bulb, tongue, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) insula
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functions of bipolar neuron
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-transmits info in several sensory systems
-provides fast, intuitive assessments of complex situations |
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monopolar/unipolar neuron
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: branch to the central nervous system, branch to the periphery
Location: near spinal cord, with processes extending to skin, muscle, organs, and glands |
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somatosenses
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transmits touch, temperature, pain
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automatic system
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directs glands and organs
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sensory neurons
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carry info from body to brain and spinal cord
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interneuron
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connects one neuron to another in brain or spinal cord
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motor
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carries info from brain and spinal cord to muscles and organs
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glia
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-non-neural
-9x more numerous than neurons -provide physical and functional support to neurons -may have many important clinical implications |
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astrocyte
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Location: central nervous system
Functions: structural and nutritional support for neurons Isolation of the synapse Clean up debris Blood-brain barrier Possible roles in signaling synaptogenesis |
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oligodendrocyte
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Location: CNS
Functions: myelination of axons |
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schwann cell
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Location: peripheral nervous system
Functions: myelination of axons |
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microglia
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Location: CNS
Functions: clean up debris |
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-oligodendroglia
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-in CNS
-one cell contributes to several axons |
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schwann cells
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-in PNS
-one cell, one axon |
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effects of multiple sclerosis: central
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Fatigue
Cognitive impairment Depression Unstable mood |
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effects of multiple sclerosis: visual
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Nystagmus
Optic neuritis Diplopia |
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effects of multiple sclerosis: throat
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Dysphagia
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effects of multiple sclerosis: musculoskeletal
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Weakness
Spasms Ataxia |
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effects of multiple sclerosis: sensation
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Pain
Hypoesthesias Paraesthesias |
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effects of multiple sclerosis: bowel
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Inconsistence
Diarrhea or constipation |
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effects of multiple sclerosis: urinary
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Inconsistence
Frequency or retention |
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microglia
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Sense molecules assoc with cellular damage and digest the debris
Microglia release substances that can lead to neuroinflammation, possibly contributing to multiple neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis |
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ingredients of intracellular and extracellular fluid
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o Water-H2O
o Ions Charged particles • Potassium K+ • Sodium Na+ • Calcium Ca2+ • Chloride Cl- • Protein anions A- |
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ion concentrations
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• Now we can see why the sodium-potassium pump is so important- it maintins the difference in ionic concentration between the inside and outside of neuron.
• Based on distribution of ions and other particles the inside of the neuron is negatively charged relative to the outside |
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resting membrane potential
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• The diff in charge bw the inside and outside of the membrane of a neuron at rest
• At rest, the inside of the cell is about -70mV lower than outside of cell • Potential=voltage |
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diffusion
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• Molecules will move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration
• Diff pressure moves molecules along a concentration gradient |
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electrical force
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• Charged molecules or ions will be attracted to areas of opposite charge and repelled by areas of like charge
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extracellular fluid
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positively charged relative to tht intracellular fluid
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Intracellular fluid
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negatively charged relative to the extracellular fluid
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Negatively charged protein molecule
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too large to pass through ion channel
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potassium ion
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diffusion pushed K+ out. Electrical force attracts K+ in
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chloride ion
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diffusion pushes Cl- in. electrical force attracts Cl- out
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sodium ion
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diffusion pushes Na+ in. Electrical force attracts Na+ in.
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Selective permeability
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• Different channels and receptors “gate specific ions—i.e. they are selectively permeable.
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resting membrane potential
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-A- ions and K+ ions have higher concentration inside and relative to outside, whereas Cl- ions and Na+ ions are more concentrated outside the axon
-The resting membrane potential is established when the movement of K+ out of the cell equals K+ movement into the cell o The neuron is polarized in its resting state o Resting membrane potential is about -70mV |
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synapses
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Connections where neurons connect, come close but do not touch each other
Give up synapses as you get older |
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receptors
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receive transmitters
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calcium
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trigger to tell vesicle to eject contents (push out neurotransmitters)
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acetylcholine
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-made by the enzyme ChAT
-necessary to pay attention -need sugar to make and release acetylcholine |
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transmitters
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o Diet forms component of transmitters
o Once they are produced, they are stored…if not used, then destroyed |
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Access DNA when access memory
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Change physical structure of synapse
· If synapse diesàlose memory · Unable to form complex synapses, usually have some sort of mental retardation · Everything that learns does it this way · Synapses usually prevail |
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oligodendrocites
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produce myelin sheath
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dendrites
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receive info from other neurons
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cell membrane
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boundary between cell inside and outside
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charges inside
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negative
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charges outside
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positive
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electrical potential difference
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the electrical charge of neurons is caused by ions of different charges on each side of the membrane
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diffusion
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molecules move from areas of high concentration to low concentration
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concentration gradient
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membranes want to reach equilibrium, balance electrical, concentration forces
-"seesaw" |
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anions
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make cells neg charges
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potassium
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concentrated inside, drawn in by electrical force but being pulled out by chem
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channels
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· Go back and forth to reach equilibrium
· Semi-permeable…don’t let everything through so it doesn’t all go to equilibrium and you can’t function · Ion pumps use energy to work their way up concentration gradients · Use food to correct imbalance |
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-70mV
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When equilibrium reached, when sodium/potassium leaked, when neuron is not doing anything
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into neurons
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Oxygen, carbs, amino acids, fats, hormones, vitamins
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out of neurons
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§ CO2
§ Ammonia § Lactate § Hormones |
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glucose
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he brain’s primary source of energy and most of it is used to maintain a resting membrane potential—critical for neuronal function
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components of a typical neuron
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Dendrites, cell body (soma), node of ranvier, axon, nucleus, myelin, presynaptic terminal
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dendrites
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receivers
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axon terminal
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transmitters
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shwann's cells
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make myelin
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axon
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the conducting fiber
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myelin sheath
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insulating fatty layer that speeds transmission
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nucleus
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Materials used for growth, repair, and transmission (stored inside vesicles) are transported down the axons by a specialized protein (Kinesin) that “walks” along the microtubules at the expense of ATP
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astrocytes
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-important component of the blood brain barrier
-conduct nutrients from the blood to the neurons and transport waste products away to the blood and CSF |
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microglia
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interact with neuronal and non-neuronal elements, both structurally and functional
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two types of acetylcholine receptors
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nicotinic and muscarinic type 1 and 2
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spatial summation
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abrupt depolarization (spike) of the membrane potential
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depolarization
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+35 mV
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summation occurs at...
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axon hillock
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firing of action potential
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Sodium opens fast
· Potassium opens slow · Block potassium, interfere with action potential · Toxins block neurons from being active · Cell resting, then becomes slightly depolarized, Na+ channels open, depolarizes, threshold reached, action pot spikes |
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action potential
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1.resting membrane potential
2.ap generation 3.signal propagation 4.neurotransmitter release5 5.signal received 6.repeat |
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nucleus
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dna "code" for proteins
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endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, and ribosomes
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construct proteins
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cytoskeleton
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gives neurons shape
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mitochondria
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provides eneryg
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cell membrane
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made of phospholipid bilayer
provides boundary bw cell inside and outside selectively permeable |
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proteins in the membrane have these important functions
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receptors
channels pumps |
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selective membrane permeability
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the membrane lets through small molecules without electrical charge
the membrane blocks big molecules or molecules with electrical charge this separation causes electrical and chemical diffs bw sides of the membrane |
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inside of membrane
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neg, -70
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outside
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zero
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cations
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postive
sodium Na+ and potassium K+ |
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anions
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negative
chloride Cl- |
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intracellular charged proteins
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A-
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two forces involved in the spread of ions on either side of the membrane
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electrical force
chemical force |
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electrical potential difference
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the electrical charge of neurons is caused by ions of different charges on either side of the membrane
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equilibrium
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reaches when the chemical force is equal to the electrical force
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anions
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because anions (proteins) are too big to get thru cell membrane, they make the membrane negatively charged
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what pushes what?
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diffusion pushes K+ out. elec force attracts K+ in.
diffusion pushes Cl- in, elec force attracts Cl- out diffusion pushes Na+ in, elec force attracts Na+ in |
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ion channel
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protein structure that forms a pore in the cell membrane so ions can pass thru along their electrical and chem gradients
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ion pump
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protein structure in cell membrane that uses energy to move ions against their electrical or chemical gradient
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voltage-gated Na+ channels
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type of ion channel
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states of channels: resting
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(closed)
activation gate is closed, inactivation gate is open closed when neuron is at rest |
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states of channels: activation
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both gates are open
triggered by increases in voltage |
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states of channels: inactivated (closed)
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inactivation gate closed, activation gate open
triggered when channel is open for a long time |
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ion pumps
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use cellular energy to operate
(ATP, generated by mitochondria) require energy bc they force ions to go against their chemical or electrical gradients |
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neurons at rest
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when neurons are not transmitting info signals they are at their resting membrane potential (RMP)
the resting potential is around -70mV bc the neuron is more negatively charged on the inside polarized bc outside and inside are different |
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generating the resting membrane potential
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1. start with a membrane and an imbalance of an ion across the membrane
2. add a K+ selective ion channel. K+ flows down its concentration gradient 3. equilibrium for K+ is reached |
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ion permeability
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K+ is free to enter and leave cell
Na+ channels are ordinarily closed to prevent entry of Na+ Na+/K+ pumps out three Na+ for every two K+ |
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resting potential
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caused by diffs in concentration of ions on either side of cell membrane
membrane is selectively permiable to diff ions chemical and electrical forces acting on each ion |
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action potential
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1. resting membrane potential
2. AP generation 3. signal propagation 4. neurotransmitter release 5. signal received (EPSP/IPSP) 6. repeat |
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resting membrane potential
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disturb it and change it in order to generate an AP
once the RMP is generated it is susceptible to disturbance or imbalance the equilibrium is then altered temporarily the inside of a cell can become more or less neg due to the movement of ions across the membrane |
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deplarization
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ions move to make the cell LESS negative inside compared to outside (may still be ne, ex -30)
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hyperpolarization
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ions move to make cell MORE neg inside compared to outside (diff is more extreme)
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graded potentials
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local diffs in electrical charge
depends on movement of specific ions that flow into cell |
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depolarizing
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excitatory...green light
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hyperpolarizing
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inhibitory...red light
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inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP)
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hyperpolarizing
chloride ion flow inward is usually responsible for the generation of an IPSP influx of Cl- or efflux of K+, making the extracellular side of the membrane more positive |
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excitatory post synaptic potential (EPSP)
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depolarizing
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Na+ permeability
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sodium ion flow inward causes an excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)
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depolarization
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due to an influx of Na+ through Na+ channels
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graded potential summation
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you can add and subtract graded potentials
summation occurs at the axon hillock two types of potential summation (spatial and temporal) |
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spatial summation
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EPSPs produced at the same time, but on separate parts of the membrane, do not influence each other
EPSPs produced at the same time, and close together, add to form a larger EPSP neutral events that happen in close spatial proximity to each other will build on each other (or cancel each other out, if one is excitatory and the other inhibitory) |
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temporal summation
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neutral events that happen in close timing to each other will build on each other or cancel each other out
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threshold potential
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EPSPs add together until they reach a threshold potential, which is the membrane potential needed for the neuron to fire an action potential
if the EPSPs don't hit the threshold, the membrane goes back down to its resting potential this makes an action potential all or nothing |
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generating an action potential
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summed EPSPs and IPSPs on dendritic tree and cell body depolarize membrane at axon hillock to threshold level, generating an action potential
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action potential
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abrupt depolarization (spike) of the membrane potential
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EPSP summatin
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EPSPs caused by ligand-gated Na+ channels opening depolarize the cell toward threshold
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threshold
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EPSPs summate to reach threshold and voltage-gated Na+ channels open
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depolarization
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once voltage gated Na+ channels open Na+ rushes into the cell causing rapid depolarization
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peak
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as the cell depolarizes Na+ channels close and K+ voltage-gated channels open
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what happens when the membrane becomes more K+ permeable?
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at rest, the neuron is negative on the inside
now the neuron is positive compared to the outside (from Na+) |
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repolarization and refractory period
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Na+ channels are closed and potassium is leaving the cell
cell is going back toward its resting potential during this time, the cell cannot fire another action potential bc the Na+ channels are "inactivated" |
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hyperpolarization
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the cell overshoots its normal resting potential
membrane is more neg than -70 mV during this time its harder for the neuron to fire again but possible if the signal is "important" enough (very strong EPSPs) |
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restoration of resting potential
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K+ voltage gated channels close again
membrane permeability back to resting state Na+/K+ pumps work to restore ion concentration gradients |
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conductances (g)
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NUMBER OF CHANNELS OPENING
the opening of Na+ channels initiate the action potential the closing of the Na+ channels and opening K+ repolarize the membrane |
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terotoxin (TTX) in puffer fish
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block voltage
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scorpions
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contain many toxins that block K+, including maurotoxin (MTX)
block K+ channels by sitting in this channel |
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synaptogenesis
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the formation of synapses between neurons in the nervous system
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dendrites
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collect electrical signals
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cell body
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integrates incoming signals and generates outgoing signals to axon
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axon
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passes electrical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell
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axon hillock
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place where the axon meets the cell body
calculator that performs the temporal and spatial summation axon hillock decides whether the cell has hit threshold axon hillock=gatekeeper to the neuron transmitting an axon potential action potential occurs here |
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absolute refractory period
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can't fire again
caused by inactivation of voltage-gated na+ channels |
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relative refractory period
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can fire again with stronger stimulus
caused by hyperpolarization overshoot with action potential |
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rate law
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stimulus intensity coded by firing rate
more intense stimulus causes neuron to spike more frequently |
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action potential propagation
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every part of the membrane must go thru the changes in potential and channel openings and closings
the action potential voltage does not change as it moves down the axon |
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conduction of the AP by the axon is non-decremental
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wherever you measure the AP along the axon it is the same size
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myelinating axons
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un-insulated wires dont transmit electrical signals very well so most wires are coated with plastic
similarly, un-insulated (unmyelinated) axons dont transmit signals as quickly as myelinated axons |
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how axons get myelinated in the CNS
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oligodendrocites
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how axons get myelinated in the PNS
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shwann cells
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nodes of ranvier
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gaps between schwann cells
contain most of the ion channels of the axon |
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saltutory conduction
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the action of jumping from one node to the next
in outcome of myelination |
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multiple sclerosis
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demyelinating disease
caused by the immune system attacking the body's myelin and damaging or destroying it |
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single cell recordings
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measures action potential in individual cells
uses a small insulated wire microelectrode |
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multi-neuron recordings
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EEG
uses an electroencephalogram measures the combined potentials of thousands of neurons, particularly those near surface of cell |
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uses of EEG
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monitoring sleep stages
estimating depth of anesthesia evaluating the severity of head trauma looking for seizure activity lie detection - polygraph |
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what happens after the action potential?
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the action potential makes its way down the axon until it reaches the axon terminals
at the axon terminals, it transfers the signal to the next neuron's dendrites generate IPSPs and EPSPs |
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synapse
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the place where the sending axon and receiving cell meet
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polygraph
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simple method for recording electrical activity of the human brain
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hippocampus
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controls ability to learn
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acetylcholine
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plays a role in attention and memory
projects upward to cortex allows you to pay attention to auditory things, etc |
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alzheimers
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lose ability to remember, pay attention
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occipital lobe
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acetylcholine projects to that part of your brain
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acetylcholine
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learning and memory
adenosine compromises it activity=action potential |
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norepinephrine
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projects everywhere
wakes you up in the morning made from tyrosine and amino acids tyrosine requires iron brain's "on switch" |
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opiates
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help you fall asleep, turn off arousal system
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serotonin
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sleep, dreaming, and moods
project everywhere |
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synesthesia
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a remarkable, rare condition where an individual has multimodal perceptual experiences from a unimodal sensory event
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parkinson's disease
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loss of serotonergic neurons
reduced serotonergic function |
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GABA
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inhibition
-inhibit yourself from doing "stupid things" |
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GABA distribution
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transmitter is everywhere
opening of chloride ions inside more eng |
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anytime you potentiate GABA...
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produce a lot of IPSPs
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glutamate
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lets you be plastic: neuroplasticity
anytime your brain develops, its glutamate allows your brain to learn |
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how drugs work in nervous system
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1. action potential
2. synthesis (precursor) 3. packaging 4. release + - (heteroreceptors) 5. actions at receptor 6. breakdown 7. reuptake |
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amino acids
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glutamate, aspartate, glycine, GABA
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monoamines
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catecholammines - dopamine, epinephrine, norepinephrine
indolamines - serotonin |
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soluble gases
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nitric oxide, carbon monoxide
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neuropeptide
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endorphins
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cholinergic system
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innervates areas associated with memory and learning
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symptoms of alzeimers disease due to...
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loss of acetylcholine neurons
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mild AD
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forgetfulness, word finding difficulty, apathy, poor attention, difficulty with complex tasks, depression, work trouble
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moderate AD
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disorientation, memory loss, confusion, insomnia, wandering, speech difficulty, restlessness
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severe AD
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adnosia, apraxia, aggression, agitation, incontinence, gait disturbance
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norepinephrine
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arousal
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increase in level of arousal
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acetylcholine, glutamate, sensory stimulus, external signals
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decrease in level of arousal
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serotonin, endorphins, GABA, sleep, internal signals
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norepinephrine
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also regulates the communication bw brain and body to control metabolism
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serotonin
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sleep, dreaming, and moods
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ability of hallucinogens to induce synesthesia
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may be related to their ability to influence serotonergic control over the frontal lobes
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parkinson's disease
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may be due to reduced serotonergic function
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GABA
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inhibition
potentiation of GABA produces the sedative, anxiolytic, muscle relaxant, anticonvulsant and cognition-impairing effects of benzodiazepines |
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glutamate
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neuroplasticity
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central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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peripheral nervous system
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connection bw CNS and muscles, organs, skin
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somatic nervous system
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somatosensory (skin feeling)
skeletal motor (muscle control) cranial and spinal nervous |
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autonomic nervous system
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controls and senses glands and organs
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sympathetic nervous system
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fight or flight
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parasympathetic nervous system
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rest and digest
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afferent
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sensory - info moves toward CNS from sensory receptors
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efferent
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motor- info moves away from CNS to muscles and organs
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basic brain structure
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cerebral cortex, limbic system, subcortical structure, cerebellum, brain stem
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triune brain theory: lizards
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brain stem and cerebellum, fight or flight
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triune brain theory: mammal brain
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limbic system: emotions, memories, habits
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triune brain theory: humans
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neocortex - language, abstract thought, imagination, consciousness. reasons, rationalizes
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three layers in CNS
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dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater
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2 layers in PNS
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dura mater and pia mater
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meninges
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contain blood cells
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rostral/anterior
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head
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caudal/posterior
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tail
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dorsal/superior
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back
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ventral/inferior
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belly
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medial
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middle
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lateral
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outside
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proximal
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near core
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distal
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extremeties
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ipsilateral
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same side
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contralateral
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opposite side
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cordal
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frontral section of brain
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superior
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dorsal section of brain
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midsagittal
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medial section of brain
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prefrontal cortex
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exectutive decisions
planning introspection correlated with size social control morality personality |
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superior frontal gyrus
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contains part of prefrontal cortex
activated during introspection important for planning movement |
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middle frontal gyrus
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part of prefrontal cortex
complex behaviors such as attention and lying |
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inferior frontal gyrus
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part of prefrontal cortex
important for controlling impulsivity high inferior frontal activity - low risk taking behavior |
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broca's area
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part of the inferior frontal gyrus
important for speech production |
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broca's aphasia
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loss of ability to understand or express speech
caused when broca's area damaged speech is labored, disjointed, non-fluent |
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primary motor cortex
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located at posterior end of frontal lobe
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precentral gyrus
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just anterior to central sulcus
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drugs that look like dopamine
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mescaline
DOM MDA MDMA - ecstasy |
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primary motor cortex map
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primary motor cortex has a "map" of body parts it controls
amt of cortex devoted to body part is related to the complexity of its function often called the homunculus |
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premotor cortex
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anterior to primary motor cortex
Important for planning movement, sensory and spatial guidance of movement, and understanding the actions of other people · “mirror neurons” |
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parietal lobes
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integrate multiple sensory systems
hemispheric separation of functions |
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left parietal lobe
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language, symbols, and math
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right parietal lobe
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spatial maps
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primary somatosensory cortex
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located at anterior end of parietal lobe
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post-central gyrus
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each hemisphere's primary somatosensory cortex senses the contrlateral side of the body
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dermatomes
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skin areas innervated by specific spinal nerves
ones that are spread out over large areas smaller on the homunculus |
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primary visual cortex
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receives input from eyes via limbic areas
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temporal lobe
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important for hearing, memories, object recognition, language, and emotion
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primary auditory cortex
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damage to this area removes awareness of sound
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wernicke's area
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language comprehension area
language abilities are usually focused on left side of brain damage to this area causes wernicke's (or fluent) aphasia |
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middle temporal gyrus
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important area for sensory integration plus integration plus language and semantic memory
associated with auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia |
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inferior temporal gyrus
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important area for complex visual processing
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fusiform gyrus
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complex object recognition
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parahippocampal gyrus
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memory formation
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prosopagnosia
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inability to recognize faces
("the man who mistook his wife for a hat") caused by brain damage or can be inherited |
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frontal lobe motor areas
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control movement of voluntary skeletal muslces
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Frontal lobe association areas
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responsible for elaboration of conscious thought
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Temporal lobe sensory areas
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responsible for hearing and smiling
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Occipital lobe sensory areas
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responsible for vision
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Parietal lobe sensory areas
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responsible for the sensations of temperature, touch, pressure and pain from skin
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limbic system
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consists of several subcortical areas
important for emotion, memory, motivation, and sense of smell |
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cingulate cyrus
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processes both social and physical pain
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hypothalamus
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found underneath the thalamus
controls autonomic nervous system emotional response, food intake, water balance, sleep cycles |
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hippocampus
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part of temporal lobe
important for converting short term memories into long term memories |
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amygdala
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important for making associations bw different stimuli
influences emotional valence of stimuli recognition of emotional faces |
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basal ganglia
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set of ganglia located around the thalamus and hypothalamus
involved in suppression of unwanted motor activity forms complex signaling loops with motor areas of cortex |
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olfactory bulb
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underlies sense of smell
connected to amygdala - emotional reaction to scents |
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thalamus
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first stop for sensory info coming from body
"sensory switchboard" All sensory input passes through the thalamus on its way to the cortex from the periphery |
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default network
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activates when your mind wanders
· Default network activated during many mental activites o Autobiographical memory o Theory of mind o Envisioning the future o Moral decision making |
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white matter
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connects different parts of brain
axon "highways" |
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grey matter
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contains neuron cell bodies
neuron "homes" |
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aruate fasciculus
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connects broca's area and wernicke's area
Both important for certain aspects of language o Damage on left causes conduction aphasia |
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conduction aphasia
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understand language but make many errors
cant repeat back damage of left of aruate fasciculus |
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tone deafness
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loss on right side of aruate fasciculus
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brainstem and cerebellum
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o Midbrain
o Pons o Medulla |
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cerebellum
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Important for balance, motor learning, and motor error correction
o Important for autonomic (unconscious) functions o Conduit between spinal cord and higher structures o Damage to the pons in this area causes “locked in syndrome” |
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locked in syndrome
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o Cortical functions preserved
o Patients completely paralyzed except eyes o Caused by blocking blood supply to the pons |
