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172 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Misconceptions of behavior and biology
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~one on one relationship between genes and behavior- gene code
~ if something has biological basis, it cant be changed- behavior is easier to change if it is understood ~if something is natural or biological then it is right or justified- naturalistc fallacy |
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Main effect Model
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behaviro is influenced by either culture or biology
- too simple |
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Interaction Model
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where something is on the line betewen culture and biology
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Transactional Model
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Where behavior is ont he lin between culture and biology but it is always changing
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proxomite
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explanations of how something happens- physiology
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ultimate
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explantions of why something happens- evolution, adaptation
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Gibbon
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Monogamous
Sexes similar in size No estrus Female kin affiliation |
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Orangutan
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Opporunistic male comp.
Males 2x big No estrus swelling Female Kin affiliation |
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Gorilla
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polygynous male comp.
males 2x big slight estrus swelling some female affiliation |
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Chimp
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multi-male/multi- female
males 1/4x large estrus swelling some femalie affiliation |
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Bonobo
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multi-male/multi-female
males 1/4 x large estrus swelling High female affiliation |
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Human
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In between monogamy and polygamy
males almost 1/4 x no swelling some affiliation (?) |
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apes
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birth at later age
longer gestation period long periods between births invest many years in offspring |
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humans
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division of labor
share food- many different food chains preservation of food extended juvenile period but shor inter-birth intervals |
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EEA (environment of evolutionary adaptedness)
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~conditions under which particular patterns of behavior and biology evovled
~prime mover: what compells us to evolve |
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Models of Human Evolution
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analog: living traditional societies
prime mover what |
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Man the Humnter
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-most common model
-prime mover: hunting/male cooperation -complex decisions made by hunters led to a larger brain -males prodided meat -tools, division of labor, cooperation -applied to Homo and Australapithecines -hunting improtant in many societies -hunting might not explain large brain development-other animals -model ignores women |
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Woman the Gatherer
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-prime mover: female gatherers
-memeory for gathering led to larger brain -female provided for family -applied primarily to Homo -central place for foraging -tools -acknowledges women but not men -both sexes gained larger brains |
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Man the Provisioner
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-prime mover: males/hunting
-bipedalism -male provisioning of family -home base -monogamy -applied to australopithecines -importance of uveniles and reudction in birth spacing -emphasize pair bonding but australopithencines were polygynous - women provided too |
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Body Guard Hypothesis
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-analog:non-human primates
-prime mover: protection from sexual coercion -why females would bond with a certain male |
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Theft Hypothesis
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-prime mover:females provided males with roots in exchange for protection from food theft & cooking and fire
-male-female bonds -lack of estrus -reduced sexual dimorphism |
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Juvenile Development Hypothesis
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-analog: non-human primates
-prime mover: extension of juvenile period -what comples us to develop required coordinated care -provides overlapping of nutrionally dependent children -male-female bonds to care for dependent children |
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Trouble with sex
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cost of meiosis
cost of recombination cost of mating |
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cost of Meiosis
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can only pass on 1/2 of genes to offspring
if asexual- 100% genes |
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cost of recombination
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-must combin male and female genomes without major mistakes
-breaking up good combo |
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cost of mating
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-energy spent on finding and competing for mates
-vulnerability to predatio during mating - STDs |
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Why sex?
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-gets rid of harmful mutations
-allows for beneficial recombination |
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Fisher Muller: "Ratchet Hypothesis"
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-sex brings thogher and purges those with 'bad' mutations
-offspring with good genes suervuvie -asex cant get ride of mutations -higher mutation rate, greater advantage of sex -problems: selection happens at the level of the individual and not the species-mutation based on individual and not the species |
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Williams: "Lottery Hypothesis"
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-in unstable environments do not want multiple copies of the same "ticket"
-better to have more variablitly and have more chance of survival -problem:sexual organisms mroe common in stable environments |
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Graham Bell: "Tangled Bank Hypothesis"
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sex avoids specialization
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W.D. Hamilton: "Red Queen Hypotheis"
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-stay one step ahead of parasites
-sex allows to be step ahead of parasite-adapt to host -better to stay one step ahead of predator |
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Sex Chromosomes
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lead to regularor genes and prenatial hormones- leads to gonadal sex & phenotypic sex
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genital folds
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scrotum or labia
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genital tubercle
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clitoris or penis
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Undifferentiated stage of males
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realsease hormones that release MIS
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MIS (mullerian inhibiting substance)
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-disintegrates Mullerian duct
-promotes testosterone |
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SRY (sex determining region of the y chromosome) gene
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-part of the TDF- (testes determining factor) gene complex
-triggers testes to develop |
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Wnt-7a gene
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destroys mullerian duct
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DHT
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-testosterone converted to this
-develpment of external male genitalia |
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Wolffian Duct
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PEVS
prostate gland, epidydimous, vas deferens, seminal vesicle |
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Dax-1 Gene
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helps regulate female development
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Wnt-4 Gene
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-essential for female development
-prevents production of testosterone -intiates development of Mullerian duct -necessary for proper oocycte development -supresses wolffian duct |
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Wnt-7a gene (female)
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development of uterus
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Mullerian Duct
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FUC
fallopian tubes uterus cervix |
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sex differences
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-societal/cultural influences (proximate)
-physiological mechanism (proximate) -evolutionary influences (ultimate) |
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spatial ability
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higher with higher T
- helps men navigate larger ranges -division of labor -mating strategy -helped with hunting |
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confidence
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increased with T
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object location
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-importance of remebering plant locations
-benefit of reduced mobility -helped with gathering |
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evolutionary explanations of sex differences
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-men=spatial ability
-women=object location -over time males and females who behaved in certain ways were favored by natural selection |
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Investment from males
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-small gametes
-paternal investmanet variable |
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Investment from females
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-large gametes
-internal gestation -lactation -lengthy parental investment |
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natural selection
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-varation in trait
-trait=inheritable -differential reproductive sucess |
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Reproductive sucess
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successfully leaving more copies of your gnes in subsequent generations than do other indivuiudals
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Inter-Sexual Choice (female Choice)
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-one sex choosing to mate with memeber of opposite sex
-possession of good genes (sexy son hypo & handicap principle) and investment in offspring -good genes: low pathogen load and sperm quality -coosy because reproductive ability and resources/territory |
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When not choosy for mates
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-male: when there is no limit on insemination and low investment in offspring
-female: advantageous to confuse paternity |
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Intra-sexual competion (males competeing0
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-competition among memebers of one sex for members of opposite sex
-female chocie constrained if dominant males keep other males away & if winners coant keep other males away use coercison or freely chosen by females |
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why compete?
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-genetic quailty
-resources -parenting ability -reproductive ability: sperm competition and fecundity -mates are limited: energetic/time constraints |
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inter-sexual coercion
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-force to mate
-override the results of inter-sexual chocie and intra-sexual competition -cost on those coerced |
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female strategies to avoid sexual coercion
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-escape from males
-aggressive toewrds males -coalitions with females -association with a particular male |
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Ovary
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-where eggs develop
- target organ: generates meature germ cells in response to hormonal control signals - endocrine gland: sends signals of its own to uterus, hypothalamus and piuitary |
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Oocyte
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- each immature egg is called a primary oocyte and is contained in a follicle
- dcline in oocyte as we age - when girl is born she has all the eggs in the overy - before birth, the oocyte goes through meiosis |
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Follicular Pahse
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-1st half of menstration
-follical dominat structure - LH and FSH are low ar the start of cycle |
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H-P-O Axis
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- Hypothalamus- Pituitary- Ovarian Axis
- Low FSh stimulates Hypothamalmus to realse GnRH which signals to the interior pituitary - anterior pituitary relases more FSH and LH - FSH stimulates follicle to pridce estrogen (estradiol) - cells differentiate in the follicle forming hte Graffian follicle' - increasing amounts of estrogen are produced by the Graffian Follicles, one becomes the dominate follicel - increase in estrogne sends a "negative feedback" signal to the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to stop producing GnRH and FSH - at some point increasing estrogen switches to positve feedback - hypothamalmus secrestes meore GnRH- particualry LhRH at this point - when a threshold amount of LhRH is reached, the anterior pituitary release a massice dose of LH - this massive surge in LH cuases the follicle to rupture and ovulation to occur |
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GnRH
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Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
- cuases release of FSH and LH |
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FSH
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Follicle Stimulating Hormone,
- stimilates production of estrodial |
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Estrodial
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predominant estrogen produced by humans during menstration
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Graffian Follicle
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-Theca Cells
- granulosa cells |
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theca cells
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cells on the outside
- LH stimulates theca cells to make testosterone - some estrogen made de novo - when egg ruptiures, theca cells come out w/ the egg and noursih it on the way to the uterus |
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ganulosa cells
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smaller cells on the inside of the follicle
- convert testosteron into estradiol under influnce of FSH |
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LH
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Leutenizing Hormone
-stimulates theca cells to make testosteron |
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coronae
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surrounds eggs
- eggs cant be fertilized if theca cells is around it |
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the luteal phase
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- empty follicle becomes the corpus luteum
- corpus luteum produces estrogen and progesterone -estrogen and progesterone cuases changes in reproductive organs - LH and progesterone also invovled in negative feeback loops -progesterone initiates secretory phase in uterus |
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estrogen
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-stimulates growth of cells in the lining of the uterus, the cervix and the vagina
- cuases breast to increase progesterone receptor density - initiates proliferative phase in uterus - causes changes in cervical mucous |
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progesterone
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- builds up the lining of the uterus for fertilization
- incresed concentration in breast in luteal phase - initiates secretory phase of endometrium - signals the pituitary to stop producing LH |
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proliferative phase
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- in the uterus
- estrogen initates a "proliferative phase" when glands of uterine lining thicken and grown and blood supply proliferates |
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secretory phase
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- inside the uterus
- progestrone cuases the uterus to enter a "secretory phase" when it secretes embryo-nourishing substances |
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secretory phase of uterus
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-endometrium is heavily vascularized
- active secretion of nutrient-rich medium for embryonic growth - embryo can only implant in secretory lining |
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Changes in cervical mucous
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-normally forms a maze of tangled fibers
- under influence of estrogen fibers line up permitting sperm to get through |
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changes in cervix
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- closes soon after ovulation
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changes in vagina
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- vagina becomes drier with increasing progesterone
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changes in the breasts
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- estrogen cuases breast cells to start to divide
- estrogen increses progestorn receptors= increased - increased tenderness - increased nipple senistivity |
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What triggers menstration
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-no fertilization:
~corpus luteum regresses after about 12 days ~ progesterone production dropps off sharply ~ endometrium sloughs off |
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menstration and mate choice
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- women prefer more masculine faces during ovulation
- prefer scent of more symmetrical men at midcycle |
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what triggers menarche
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- frisch body fat hypothesis
- tanner/ellsion: pelvic size hypothesis |
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frish hypothesis version 1
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- average weight at menarche is 47 kg
- 47 kg is the critical weight that triggers menarche - but graph shows no realtionship |
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frisch hypothesis version 2
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- found critical body compositon that triggers menarche
- but assumes difference in body composition is due to fat |
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frisch hypothesis version 3
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- few girls reach menarche beleow 17% body weight as fat
- this is a threshold - but no evidence of increase in probablity of reaching meanrche after attain 17% |
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pelvic size hypothesis
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- girl must reach a appropirate age of skeletal development in order to reproduce
- pelvic dimensions correlated with menstration age - pelvic breadth of 24 cm is minimum threshold |
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menarcheal age and weight
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weight accounts for 18% of variance in menarcheal age
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skeletal growth and age of menarche
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biliac diamter accounts for 50% of variance
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growth spurt and menarche
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menarche occurs after peak growth spurt and natural selsection has delayued menarche until pelvis can handle reprodcution without complications
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androgens
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- stimulates growth of nones and beginning of frwoth supiurt
- comes from adrenal gland - androgens from adrenal gland and ovary stimiualte pubic and axillary hair development |
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adrenarche
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intioation of androgen action
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estradiol I
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starts develpment pf breasts, uterus, vagina and parts of pelvis
- pelvic remodeling finsihes at the end of skeletal maturation |
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breast development
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- occurs 1st
- enlargement of areola - influence of estradiol and prolactin |
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estradiol II
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- stimulates mineral deposition resulting in ossification and fusion of epiphyses
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epiphyses
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where bones grow
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ossification
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making solidifying bone
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precocious puberty
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- too early
- 5-6 years old - treatable with estrogen antagonist |
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delayed or loss puberty
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- treateable with GnRH
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Harry Potter gene
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- gene needed to start puberty
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Gonadostat Hypothesis
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-falling sensitvity of hypothalamus to negative feedback of steroids
- pituitary, uterus, and ovary are realdy - just need signal from hypothalamus |
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Pituitary Drive Hypothesis
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pituitary produces increasing FSH and LH (gonadotropins) in response to the same GnRH stimulus from hypothalamus
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Gonadal Drive Hypothesis
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- changes in gonad come first
- increasing amounts of steroid cause hypothalmasyu to lose sensitivity to negative feedback |
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development fo LH pulses
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- pre-puberty: no LH pulses
- early puberty: production of LH pulses begins especially at night - late puberty: increasing magnitude and frequency of pulses also during day |
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adolescent subfecundity
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- capacity to have a baby
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stages of puberty for females
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look older then potential for reproduction
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stages of puberty for males
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potential for reprodcution then look older
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puberty rituals
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- signs of menarche
- restricted access to men - usually marriage happens right after |
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human endometruim
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- endometrual arterioles maternal blood to the placenta
- one artery for each placental chamber - 'spiral areteries' require more bolld brpresusre and make more blood availabel to the embryo after implantation - without implantion the retreat of the edometruim results in the injury to the microvasulatrue and thus menstration |
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Secretory phase of endomentrium
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- estradiol stimulates DNA syntheis and mitotic activity
- mucosa double s in thickness - tubular glands penetrate the stroma and become greatly enlarged - progesterone causes enlargement of stroma cells and the expression of gens that fcode for proteins important in implantation - estrogen primed endometiram binds progesterone which stimulates the flands to secret a rich mixture of flycoprotein, sugars and amino acids - decidual tissue contains lipids, carbs, nbuecleic acide sadn proteins |
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why do we menstrate
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- function/adaptive explanations: pathogen elimination hypothesis & embryo elimination hypotheis
- non-adaptive consequences: energy economy hypothesis & consequence of uterine evolution |
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"pathogen protection" hypothesis
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- menstration evovled to protect the uterus from sperm-borne pathogens
- but there are no decrease in pathogens after menstration, menstration can cause infection, sexual activity usually occurs when menstration is absent |
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more pathogen protection hypotheis problems
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-cervial musous prevents sperm from entering uterus
- no association in primate with numbers of mating partners - not more widespread |
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energy economy hypotheis
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- outer layer of endometirum is too bulky to absorb
- more costly to maintan endometruim thatn grow a new one - higher metanolic rate during luteal phase - external bleeding as a side effect when too much blood for re-absorption |
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Non-adaptive consequence of uterine evoltuion
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- increased permeability of blood vessels that supply the endometrium
-differntiation of endometrial wall occurs during eveyr cycle - blastovcy embeds in wall of endometrium - menstration as a consequence of terminal differentiation - necessary consequences of having invasisce blastocyst |
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embryo elimination hypothesis
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- igh incidence of pregnacy loss
- menstration evovled a s amenas to eliminate defective embryos - igh invstment in each offsrping, want to eliminate losses early - mating thorughout cyccle leads to increased porbbarlity of conjugation at 'wrong' time |
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menstual synchrony
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- isnt constitentyly found
- found on village level |
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mentrual taboos
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- no sex
- spouses sleep apart - cant cook for men - exclusion from sacred palces - cant perform ceratin labors - probited from touching male items -seclusion - food and hygien restrictions/ rituals - special dress |
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explanations of menstraul taboos
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- funtional
- cultural/ psychological -adaptive/evolutionary |
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Functional Hypothesis
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-menotoxins: bacterial contaminants, idea that menstrual blood exposes a man to "urethritis-causing" bacteria which is harmful to living tissues- but no evidence of "menotoxins", little cyclical variation in vaginal bacterial flora, odesnt explain women isolation
- hunting preventing menstural odor intereference: found in non-hunting societies, women not invovled in hunting in most societies anyway, lack of evidence of menstral "odor" contamination with casual contact |
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Cultural/ Psychological Hypothesis
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-castration anxiety: menstrual taboos reflect male 'castration anxiety' which is provoked by genital bleeding- but no reltiaon between castration anxiety and menstrual taboo
- male dominance: taboos assocsiated with male dominance- but more common in soceityes that are less male dominated - dilemma of wife's fecundity: sends wife to mentstaul hut as a signal that he's not interested in her fecundtiy, gesture to make her available to adulterers, increased solidarity of husband's poltical power- but women cant get pregnant during period, disinterest in fecundity isnt supproted ethnographically - soceial control: coercing poeple to respond to socail control, assert male duperiotity, adtatack a rival, lay claim to a special relation- but no evidence for male superiority and no evidnece developed to this purpose -inducement to hut: women go on "sex strike" during menstration, induces men to hunt meat for them- but no evidnece of this |
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Anti-cukoldry Hypothesis
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-anti-cuckoldry: reprodcutive status, and watch wife carefully
-reveals woman's menstrual statues to her mate - makes paternity deception difficult - but: why would be interest for women, and do you need taboo to signal menstration to mate |
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Energy Balance Hypothesis
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-menstraul taboos always invovle decerease in women's workload
- decrease in activilty levels and workload have a positive effect on the probability of conception - these practices may increase the probability of conception by decreasing energy expenditure and may serve an adaptice function |
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fecundity
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capacity to bear offspring
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fecund
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capacity to bear offsrping but never had children
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fecundatbitlity
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montyly probability of conceptuon
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fertility
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sucessful reproduction and if had chilren
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amenorrhea
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long time when not cycling
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Radioimmunoassay
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-used to measure hormone
- sample of body fluid and have radioactive progesterone with knwon amount and mix with unknown amount of hormone - use anitbodies and count amount of radioactivity of anitbody - count how many antibodies binded |
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Enzyme immunoassay
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used to measure hormone
- use enzymes instad of radioactivity |
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weight loss and progesterone
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- women losing weight had lower progesterone
- small level of weight loss can lead to luteal supression - signigifant effect in post-weight loss cycle |
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workload without nutritional stress
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-women's energy balance and weight didnt change
- lower progesterone levels of women with high workloads |
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energy balance
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net difference between eergy intake and energy expenditure
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exercise with weight loss and weight maintenance
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- lower hormonal functioning in women in negative energy balance
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energy flux
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fluctuatuion between calories taken in and calories expeneded- high flux=high intake and high expenditure
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hormonal levels and menstruation
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higher levels of estradiol and progesterone are associated with an increased probability of conception
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cross cultural differences in cycles
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-exercise and nutrion affect the probaility of conception
-woemn in industiralized societies have higher levels of ovarion hormones- may be responsible for increased risk of reproductive cancers -hormonla levels from women in industrialized countries may not provide an accurate norm for women in other coutnries |
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Hormonal set poinst
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-hormonal characteristics at menarche are carried later in life
-conditions of development affect the hormonal trajectory -aboslute level of hormones needed to ovulate may differe between populations |
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testes
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- located in scrotum
- includes semniferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens - gamete and hormonal production |
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leydig cells
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- in testes
manufacture testosterone |
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sertoli cells
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- in testes
support and nourish sperm cells |
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seminiferous tubules
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sperm development
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epididymis
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- sperm storage
- become spermatoza - develp swimming abililty |
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vas deferens
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brings sperm to urethra
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germinal epipthelium
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- in seminiferous tubules
- sperm mautruation |
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sperm
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- head: chromosomes
- acrosome (covering head): enzymes disolve egg membrane - middle piece (of tail): mitochondria - tail: microtubles (cilia and flagella) |
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seminal vesicles
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base of bladder, duct joins vas deferns
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prostate gland
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below bladder
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cowper's galnd
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either side of urethra
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FSH (male)
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promotes spermatogenesis
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LH (male)
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promotes production of testosterone in intersitial cells
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testosterone
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- sperm maturation
- stimulates growth and development of penis and testes - male secondary sex characteristics: axillary hiar, larynx, oil & sweat gland secretion - threshold needed for sexual activity and libido - role in positve "effect" - permissive effect on aggression - key promoter of muscle anabolism- upper body muscles |
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male puberty rituals
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- subincision of the penis
- penile modification (shedding of blood) - circumcision - cnanges in clothing - changes in hair style - inducement of trance state |
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function of foreskin
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- protects the glans of the penis
- shields glans and urinary opening from irritation due to feces and urine (newborn) and friciton |
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smegma
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produced by tyson's glands of Glans
- protects the glans -lubricates the glans during intercourse |
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changes with circumcision
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- cornification of the glans:
~ increased thickness in outer cell layer ~ free nerve endgings disappear ~ surface cells voered with a layer of dead cells - smega no longer produced for lubrication - skin on penile shaft is tighter |
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gorilla sexuality
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-mating confined to a few days aroudn ovulation
- mating female intiated - slight sexual swelling - females solicit mating from sulverback male |
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chimpanzee sexuality
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- promsicous mating
-estrus chimp may copulate 30-50 x perday -concentration of mating wiht dominate male(s) midcycle |
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oranguatan sexuality
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- females do not show signs of ovulation
- variety of sexual behaviors and postions - long periods of mating (3-17 min) - froced copualtions - mating during periods of high energy balance/ hormonal levels |
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Bonobo sexuality
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- high degree of non-procreative sexual activity
- regualr occurence of female-female behavior |
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orgasm in female primates
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- involved in manual stimulation, not sex
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sexual inheritance
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- primate females are much more activiely seuxla than previously thought
- primates engage in sex for other reasons besides procreation - some evidence for orgasm in female primates through manual stimulation |
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Hormonal influence on sexual behavior
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slight rise in T around time of ovulation- some studies show increase in sexual behavior (female initiated)
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sexual response cycle
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- excitation
- plateau - orgasm - resolution |
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how do women achieve orgasm
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- 95% masturbation
- 1.5 % thru vaginal insertion alone - little cross-cultural information |
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questions about female sexuality
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- female orgasm adaptive
- clitoris product of natural selection - female sexual response adaptive |
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intercouse and oxytocin release
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-intercourse alone causes release of oxytocin
- oxytocin may increase sperm uptake |
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clitoridectomy
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removal of the clitoris
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infibulation
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removal of the clitoris and part or all of the labia majora, the mons veneris and the labia minora. Surgical closure of the vaginal opening
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deinfibulation
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cutting open scar tissue caused by infibulation to allow for intercourse
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reinfibulation
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fusing the labia majora shut after childbirth
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