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49 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ethics is the study of morality using...
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- the tools and methods of philosophy
- Asks: How we ought to live? |
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Descriptive Ethics is the study or morality using...
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- the methodology of science
- Asks: How do we in fact live? |
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Normative Ethics is the...
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- search for and justification of moral standards or norms
- What are the principles, rules, standards, and virtues used? |
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Metaethics is the study of...
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- the meaning and justification of basic moral beliefs
- What does it mean for an action to be right? ---> Best consequences? ---> Most happiness? ---> Commanded by God? ---> Are moral statements true/false or just expressions of emotions or attitudes? ---> Can moral norms be justified or proven? |
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Applied ethics is the...
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- use of moral norms and concepts to resolve practical moral issues
---> Legal, business, journalistic ---> Bioethics |
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Bioethics is the subset of _____________________, focused on...
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- Applied Ethics
- healthcare, medical research, and medical technology - AKA biomedical ethics |
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Where did the study of bioethics come from?
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- Nuremburg Trials (1945)
- Improvements in medical technology - Formal accusations of misconduct |
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Nuremburg Trials helped the start of the bioethics, because...
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- Nuremburg Code
---> Set of research ethics principles for human experimentation that rose as a result of these trials |
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Improvements in medical technology helped the start of bioethics, because...
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- Artificial respiration
--->Karen Ann Quinlan in 1975 - Heart transplantation ---> Dr. Christiaan Barnard in 1987 |
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Formal accusations of misconduct helped the start of bioethics, because...
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- Henry Beecher's article in NEJM (1966)
---> Article in NEJM about unethical practices in medical experimentation |
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Commonalities in Bioethical dilemmas:
- All include... - All involve... |
- include questions about the responsible (ethical) use of biotechnological innovations
- involve challenges to relationships between individuals |
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Normative Dominance states that...
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- moral norms take precedence over other types of norms (aesthetic , etiquette, grammatical, legal, prudential)
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Universality states that...
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- moral principles of judgements apply in all relevantly similar situations
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Impartiality states that...
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- everyone's interests should count the same
---> Can't treat people differently when there is no good reason to do so |
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Reasonableness states that...
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- moral judgements can't be knee-jerk responses or personal taste
---> Must be backed by good reasons |
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Moral Principles:
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- Autonomy
- Beneficence - Nonmaleficence - Utility - Justice |
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Moral Principle #1: Autonomy
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- Autonomous persons should be allowed to exercise their capacity for self-determination
- Negative vs. Positive ---> Don't want to do something to interfere (-) ---> Want to do something to support (+) |
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Conditions for Autonomy:
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1) Liberty
---> Independence from external influences (not being coerced) 2) Agency ---> Capacity to act, if the decision is made to act in a certain way 3) Competence ---> Physically or mentally able to perform act |
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Moral Principle #2: Beneficence
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- We should do good by others
- Fiduciary relationship - Where there is a power imbalance and person with most power has to do something (ex. teacher/student) - Positive ---> Requires you to do something/act in a way of doing good |
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Moral Principle #3: Nonmaleficence
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- We should do good by doing no harm to others
- Includes physical and non-physical harm - Negative ---> Not doing something b/c you won't don't want to do bad by someone or harm them |
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Moral Principle #4: Utility
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- We should produce the most favorable balance of good over bad (benefit over harm) for all concerned
- Focus on benefits for larger community - May require deficits for subset of community (ex. immunization requirements but may harm a kid) - Cost vs. Benefits - Positive |
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Moral Principle #5: Justice
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- Equals should be treated equally
- We do good by giving people their fair due - Consistency between decisions - "Fair" does not mean "equal" (ex. fair grade doesn't mean everybody gets the same grade) - "Distributive Justice" = fair distribution of society's advantages and disadvantages |
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Principlism in action by:
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- Consider each principle in light of dilemma
- Weigh arguments for/against decision in light of principles |
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Strengths of Principlism:
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- Rational
- Takes into account special obligations - Benevolent - Concerned for justice - Situational |
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Weaknessess of Principlism:
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- "Inconsistent"
- Conflicting principles ---> No overall maxim - Ease of inaccurate application - "Overdoing it" |
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Examples of "Overdoing it" (a weakness of principlism):
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- Defensive medicine (Nonmaleficence)
- Paternalism (Beneficence) - Uncaring (Autonomy) - Unfair share of burden (Justice) |
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Ethical theories provide frameworks for reaching workable solutions; they are __________________________, meaning they tell you what and how you should think about it.
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Prescriptive
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Ethical theories are __________________________, in that they each try to force you to think about decision making in one specific way.
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Reductionistic
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Ethical Theory #1: Deontology
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An act is morally acceptable if it is done in accordance with one's duties (moral requirement) and obligations (act to which a person is morally or legally bound)
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Who developed the idea of Deontology?
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Immanuel Kant
- Viewed the world as rational and people as capable of making rational decisions, and these decisions had to be universal |
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Two imperatives for Deontology:
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1) Categorical Imperative: ultimate guideline for moral decision making; command to do something
2) Hypothetical Imperative: command to do something if you want to achieve a particular aim |
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Version 1 of the Categorical Imperative of Deontology:
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Act only on the maxim through which you can/will that it should be come universal law (act in a way in which you expect anybody in the world to act in the same circumstances)
Ex. Hooters and "schlongs" |
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Version 2 of the Categorical Imperative of Deontology:
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Act in such a way that you always treat humanity (in own person or another) never simply as a means, but always at the same time an end
Ex. Can't use someone to get data that you are going to use for something else |
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Main maxims of Deontology:
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- A moral agent may never treat another as if they were mere means to an end
- It is not what happens in the end that is most important, but rather how you get there |
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Strengths of Deontology:
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- Focus on the act itself
- Consistency/Universality - Accounts for "special obligations" (ex. friend cheating) - Rational - Accounts for justice/equality |
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Weaknesses of Deontology:
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- No responsibility for consequences
- Can have conflicting rules/duties - No guidance regarding rationale for duties - Does not account for particulars of a situation - Does not account for consequence |
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Ethical Theory #2: Act Utilitarianism
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An act is morally acceptable if it leads to the greatest balance of good (in comparison to alternative actions) for everyone considered (thinking more about consequences and what would happen if you made that decision rather than focusing on your own duties)
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Strengths of Act Utilitarianism:
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- Benevolent
- Rational - Situational - Impartial (unbiased) |
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Weaknesses of Act Utilitarianism:
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- Relies on accurate prediction of future
- Incommensurability (hard to accurately compare between the "greaterness" of goods) - No attention to "special obligations" - Inconsistency --> Injustice - Lack of responsibility for process |
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Ethical Theory #3: Rule Utilitarianism
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Act in accordance to rules that will promote the greatest amount of good, if everyone followed them
- Rules are predetermined |
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Strengths of Rule Utilitarianism:
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- Benevolence
- Rational - More consistent - More just - Includes "special obligations" |
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Weaknesses of Rule Utilitarianism:
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- Reduced situational flexibility
- "Escape Clause" (continuous narrowing of rule, may be acting like an Act Utilitarian) - Incommensurability - Can have conflicting rules (ex. lie if it has to do with your friend, yet don't lie if it has to do with your friend) - Can't completely predict the future |
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Ethical Theory #4: Natural Law Theory
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Right actions are those that conform to moral standards in Nature as discerned by human reasoning (must abide by natural law, do/promote good, and avoid evil)
- Thomas Aquinas - John Locke - Thomas Jefferson |
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Assumptions of Natural Law Theory:
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- All of nature is directed toward particular and common goals/ends (teleological)
- Moral agents are rational and can: - perceive the workings of nature - know the inclinations of other people - recognize the implications of morally permissible actions in a universal way - make their own choices (free will) ---> not b/c someone said so |
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Aquanian Natural Laws:
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1. Preserve human life
2. Produce/raise children 3. Seek knowledge 4. Seek and worship God 5. Cultivate healthy, cooperative relationships |
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Problem with Natural Laws:
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- Natural Laws can conflict
- Doctrine of the Double Effect --> A way to reconcile conflicts when trying to abide by conflicting natural laws --> Affirms: - bad action to produce a good outcome is never morally permissible - good action is permissible if it ultimately leads to bad outcome, if the bad outcome was not intended (but possibly foreseen) |
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Four tests when faced w/ Double Effect:
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1. The action itself must be morally permissible
2. Causing bad effect must not be used to obtain a good 3. Whatever the outcome, intention must be to good 4. Bad effect must be of a lesser evil than the good effect |
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Strengths of Natural Law Theory:
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- Focus on the act itself
- Consistency/Universality - Rational - Accounts for justice/equality |
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Weaknesses of Natural Law Theory:
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- Conflicting natural laws
- Relies on accurate prediction of future - Incommensurability |
