Basic Formation And Notes

Front 1

ageru(1)
N1 N2

Back 1

v gr 2
N1-cannot be used when the indirect object is the first
person or a person with whom the speaker emphathizes.
N2-the humble polite version is sashiageru|N3-when the
giver is in a higher position thanthe recipient or the
recipient is a person very close to the speaker
yaru is used instead of ageru

Front 2

ageru(2)
N1-5

Back 2

aux v gr 2
[Vte] ageru
N1-cannot be used when the indirect object is the first
person or a person with whom the speaker emphathizes
N2-if the person recieving the benefit is the direct object of
the sentence, the indirect object is omitted.|N3-when the
main verb is intransitive, ageru is not used along with ni.
N4-the humble polite version is sashiageru.|N5-when the
benefactor is in a higher position than the recipient or is of
equal status and his relationship to the recipient is close
yaru is used instead of ageru

Front 3

aida (ni)
N1-3 ***

Back 3

phr
[Vte] iru aida (ni)/[adj(i)] aida (ni)/[adj(na)stem] na aida (ni)
[N] no aida (ni)
N1-when the subjects for the sub and main clause are
different the subject in the aida-clause is marked by ga not
wa.|N2-the verb before aida is normally nonpast regardless
of the tense of the main clause. N3-aida with ni-the time
span of an event identified by the main clause falls within
the time span of an event identified by the aida-clause.
without ni-indicates that the two events are assumed to
cover the same span of time.|N4|N5|N6

Front 4

amari
N1-3

Back 4

adv
N1|N2-anmari is a phonological variant of amari and is
usally used in conversation.|N3-amari can be used in
affirmative sentences with a meaning of "very/too"
with a negative implication.

Front 5

aru(1)
* N2-6

Back 5

v gr 1
N1|N2-the negative informal form of aru is not aranai
but nai.|N3-two sentence patterns can be used with
aru:1-when a location is presented as a topic,in this case
ni can drop.2-something which exist is presented as a
topic.|N4-even if aru expresses the idea of possesion,
possessed things are marked not by o but by ga|N5-when
aru is used to express the idea of having and the object is
animate,that object must be someone who maintains a
close relationship with the possesor. aru cannot be used
in situations where the idea indicates existance if its usage
is possesive.|N6-when aru is used for events, the particle
marking locations must be de

Front 6

aru(2)
* N2

Back 6

aux v gr 1
[Vte] aru
N1|N2-the agent is usually omitted because he is
unimportant, unknown, or obvious

Front 7

ato de
N1

Back 7

conj
[Vinf past] ato de/[N] no ato de
N1-the particle de may be omitted in informal speech

Front 8

ba
**N3*N5**

Back 8

conj
N1|N2|N3-S1 cannot be an action if S2 is a command,
request or suggestion.|N4|N5-S1 cannot be a single
factual event in the pasteven if it represents a condition.
|N6|N7

Front 9

bakari
**N3

Back 9

prt
[Vinf nonpast] bakari/[Vte] bakari/[Vinf past] bakari
[N] bakari/[adj (i) inf nonpast] bakari
[adj (na) stem] na bakari/[N] prt bakari
[quantifier] bakari/ N1|N2|N3-when bakari follows
"N ga" or "N o" ga or o drops. the directional particles e
and ni may be either deleted or retained

Front 10

ba yokatta
*N2

Back 10

phr
gr 1 v [vcond] ba yokatta/gr 2 v [vstem] reba yokatta/irr v
kureba yokatta|sureba yokatta/ N1|N2-when there is no
subject in a ba-clause sentence, the first person is the
implicit subject

Front 11

dai
*N2****

Back 11

prt
[adj (na) stem/N] dai/[V/adj (i)][inf] n dai/[adj (na) stem/N] {na/
datta} n dai/N1|N2-when used with interrogative, the sentences
must be WH-questions. for yes-no questions kai is used.|N3|N4|
N5|N6

Front 12

dake
N1

Back 12

prt
[N] dake/[N] {dake prt/prt dake} (where prt=particles other
than ga,o,wa)/[V/adj(i)][inf] dake {da/desu}/adj (na) stem
{na/datta} dake {da/datta}/ N1-when dake modifies a
preceding noun, the prt that is used with the noun can be
positioned before or after dake,except for ga,o,wa, which
can be optionally used only after dake

Front 13

dake de (wa) naku (mo)
N1

Back 13

phr
[V/adj (i)][inf] dake de (wa) naku/[adj (na) stem] {na/datta}
dake de (wa) naku/[N] {*/datta} dake de (wa) naku
N1-the two nouns can be followed by various particles

Front 14

darou
N1*N3-4

Back 14

aux
[V/adj (i)][inf] darou/[adj (na) stem/N] {*/datta} darou/
N1-the formal version is deshou|N2|N3-darou/deshou with
the question marker ka makes questions softer or less
direct N4-S darou/deshou with rising intonation asks for
the hearer's agreement

Front 15

dasu

Back 15

aux v gr 1
[vmasu] dasu

Front 16

de(1)
N1

Back 16

prt
N1-de cannot be used to indicate location of existence.
however, if the existential verb aru occurs with an event
de is used

Front 17

de(2)
N1

Back 17

prt
N1-typically it indicates means and instruments|N2

Front 18

de(3)
*N2

Back 18

prt
N1|N2-a noun that precedes de expresses something that
is beyond human control,if expressing something that is
controllable de2 is used

Front 19

de(4)
N1

Back 19

prt
N1-in general x de indicates that something lasts for a
period of time up to x.

Front 20

demo
*N2

Back 20

prt
[N] demo/[N+prt] demo
N1|N2-the particle demo should not be confused with the
particle combination de+mo

Front 21

dou
N1-4

Back 21

adv
N1-the polite version of dou is ikaga. in very informal
speech desu ka is omitted after dou or ikaga|N2-dou and
ikaga are also used to offer or suggest something|N3-dou
is also used to ask the way of doing something, in this
case ikaga is usally not used|N4-dou shite "doing what"
is used to ask manners,reasons or causes

Front 22

e
N1

Back 22

prt
N1-in actuality native speakers use e and ni7
interchangerably except ni cannot be followed
by no

Front 23

ga(1)
N1-5**

Back 23

prt
N1-marks the subject of a sentence when the information
expressed by the subject is first introduced in a discourse.
N2-ga is replaced by wa if the subject is in contrast with
another element|N3-WH-words can never be topics so cant
be marked by wa.|N4-the subject in subordinate clauses is
marked by ga unless it is a contrasted element.topics are
not presented in subordinate clauses.N5-the subject may
be marked by no in relative clauses|N6|N7

Front 24

ga(2)
*N2-4*

Back 24

prt
S1 ga S2
N1|N2-ga makes a S unit with the preceding S, not with
the following S. It is wrong to place a comma before ga or
start a S with ga.|N3-S1 and S2 must be in the same form
formal or informal|N4-S2 is often omitted when it is
understandable from context or when the speaker doesnt
want to continue.|N5

Front 25

garu

Back 25

aux v gr 1
[adj (i/na) stem] garu

Front 26

goro
*N2

Back 26

suf
[N] (time) goro (ni)
N1|N2-depending on the speaker's perspective, time
expressions other than exact time expressions can be
percieved as points in time.

Front 27

goto ni
N1

Back 27

prt
N1-when a time expression precedes oki ni or goto ni,
there is no diffrence in meaning, if an event takes place
at one point

Front 28

hajimeru
**N3

Back 28

aux v gr 2
[vmasu] hajimeru
N1|N2|N3-normally attached to a non-punctual verb. if the
subject is plural,however,the verb can be a punctual verb

Front 29

hazu
*N2**N5

Back 29

n
[V/adj (i)][inf] hazu da/[N] {no/datta} hazu da
[adj (na) stem] {na/datta} hazu da/ N1|N2-hazu is a
dependent noun and cannot be used alone. it is always
modified by a sentence or a demonstrative|N3|N4|
N5-when "S hazu" modifies a noun, that is, when
"S hazu" is a relative clause no follows

Front 30

hodo
N1-2

Back 30

prt
[N] hodo/[demonstrative] hodo/[Sinf] hodo
N1-when hodo is preceded by a noun, the predicate must
be negative. if a S or a demonstrative modifies hodo, the
predicate of the main clause can be either aff or neg
N2-when hodo is used with a quantifier, it means "about"

Front 31

hou ga ii
*N2-4

Back 31

phr
[Vinf past] hou ga ii |N1|N2-the second person subject in
declarative S's are usually omitted. when the subject is
the third person, it is not omitted unless it can be clearly
understood from the context.|N3-Vinf nonpast can be
substituted for Vinf past|N4-"had better not do s.t" is
expressed by [Vneg] nai hou ga ii. the verb must be in
the nonpast neg form.

Front 32

hou ga yori
N1-4

Back 32

phr
[N] no hou ga [N] yori/[V/adj (i)][inf] hou ga;[V/adj (i)]
[inf nonpast] yori/[adj (na) stem] {na/datta} hou ga;
[adj (na) stem] na yori/[N] {de aru/datta} hou ga;[N] de
aru yori |N1-the idea of comparision is expressed by the
"X no hou ga Y yori" pattern. "Y yori may be omitted if it
is clear from the context.|N2-in the "S1 hou ga S2 yori"
pattern, S1 can be either nonpast or past. S2 is always
nonpast regardless of the tense of S1 and the main
clause.S1 can be past when the whole S is about a
present or future action or state. S1 can also be past
if the whole S is about a past action or state|N3-Y yori
can precede X (no) hou ga|N4-X no hou is a noun phrase
therefore it can also be a direct object,an indirect object,
etchowever when it is used for something other than the
subject, the "Y yori X no hou (o,ni etc)" is preferable

Front 33

hoshii(1)
N1-2

Back 33

adj (i)
N1-takes the wa-ga construction where the expriencer
is marked by wa and the desired object ga(in sub
clauses the expriencer is also marked by ga).|N2-the
experiencer is usually the first person in declarative S's
and the second person in interrogative S's. the third
person's desire is usally expressed by hoshigatte iru. it
is acceptable to use hoshii in connection with the third
person in: the past tense,indirect/semidirect speech,in
explanatory situations,in conjecture expressions.

Front 34

hoshii(2)
N1-2

Back 34

aux adj (i)
[Vte] hoshii
N1-when the experiecer wants a person X to do s.t. X is
marked by ni.|N2-the experiencer is usually the first
person in declarative S's and the second person in
interrogative S's. if the expierencer is the third person
[Vte] moraitagatte iru is used.

Front 35

ichiban
N1

Back 35

adv
ichiban [adj (i/na)]/ichiban[adj (i) stem ku/adj (na) stem ni]
N1-ichiban cannot be affixed directly to a noun, it should
precede a adjective

Front 36

iku(1)
N1-2*

Back 36

v gr 1
N1-iku is used when s.o or s.t moves in a direction away
from the speaker or in a direction away from the speakers
viewpoint,which is not necessarily the speaker's
position|N2-when someone goes to his own "home base"
uchi ni iku is ungrammatical.kaeru is used instead|N3

Front 37

iku(2)
N1

Back 37

aux v gr 1
[Vte] iku
N1-can be used as a full verb meaning "to go"

Front 38

iru(1)
N1-3

Back 38

v gr 2
N1-cannot be used for plant life or inanimate things
N2-two S patterns can be used with iru:1-a location is
presented as the topic and what exists there is under
focus. in this pattern the location marker ni drops.2-what
exist is presented as the topic and where it exists is
under focus.|N3-an animate thing or a group of animate
things can also be in the location position.

Front 39

iru(2)
*N2

Back 39

aux v gr 2
[Vte] iru
N1|N2-iru also expresses a habitual action|N3|N4-the verb
sumu requires the [Vte] iru pattern if the S expresses a
present state, also verbs like iu and omou with a third
person subject require the [Vte iru] pattern if the S
expresses a present state.

Front 40

iru(3)
N1*N3-4

Back 40

v gr 1
N1-iru takes the wa-ga construction, where the expriencer
is followed by wa and the necessary object ga.|N2|
N3-the expriencer can also take the particle ni
N4-in sub clauses, the expriencer is followed by either ga
or ni unless the S is contrastive(in that case wa follows)

Front 41

jibun(1)
*N2*N4

Back 41

pro
N1|N2-when jibun is an empathy marker, its referent
(i.e the subject of the S) is normally a passive expriencer
N3|N4-the referent of jibun in a complex S has to be
conscious of the situation expressed in the main clause

Front 42

jibun(2)
N1

Back 42

pro
N1-jibun is a contrastive marker if at least one of the
following conditions are met:1-its referent is an agent
2-the subject is generic 3-jibun cannot be replaced by
an implicit third person pronoun or by an explicit third
person pronoun

Front 43

ka(1)
N1-2

Back 43

prt
[N] ka [N] ka/[V/adj (i)][inf] ka
[adj (na) stem/N] {*/datta} ka |N1-can mark either nouns
or S. when it marks nouns the final ka is usually omitted.
when it marks S, the S are sub clauses,that is they must
be in the informal form. the topic marker wa must not be
used|N2-ka cannot be used to connect two questions

Front 44

ka(2)
*N2-4

Back 44

prt
[V/adj (i)] ka/[adj (na) stem/N] {*/datta} ka |N1
N2-unless it is very informal, an interrogative S is marked
by ka whether it is a yes-no question or a WH-question.
an interrogative S is pronounced with rising inotation.
N3-ka remains in indirect questions|N4-when the informal
forms of na adjs and the copula precede ka da drops

Front 45

ka (dou ka)
N1*N3

Back 45

prt
[V/adj (i)][inf] ka (dou ka)
[adj (na) stem/N] {*/datta} ka (dou ka) |N1-when the
optional dou ka is used, the embedded question has to
be a yes-no question|N2|N3-Sinf ka (dou ka) can be used
as a noun phrase that takes particles such as ga and o.

Front 46

kai
N1-2*N4

Back 46

prt
[V/adj (i)][inf] kai/[adj (na) stem/N] {*/datta} kai
[V/adj (i)][inf] no kai/[adj (na) stem/N] {na/datta} no kai
N1-since kai is used in informal speech,preceding S
must be in the informal form|N2-kai is used only for
yes-no questions|N3|N4-questions in female informal
speech can be formed by dropping kai in male informal
questions and using rising intonation

Front 47

kamoshirenai

Back 47

aux adj (i)
[V/adj (i)][inf] kamoshirenai
[adj (na stem/na] {*/datta} kamoshirenai

Front 48

kara(1)
N1

Back 48

prt
N1-basically indicates a temporal or spartial starting point
and or a source. a source can be a person,material
cause or a reason

Front 49

kara(2)
*N2

Back 49

conj
[Vte] kara
N1|N2-te kara is not to be confused with ta kara in which
kara is used as a conj of cause/reason

Front 50

kara(3)
*N2-3*

Back 50

conj
[Sinf] kara
N1|N2-in sub clauses predicates are predicates are
usally in the informal form.S1 may be in the formal form
in very formal speech|N3-when a main clause is known to
the hearer from the context,the kara clause must be
in the informal form|N4

Front 51

kashira
*N2-4

Back 51

prt
[V/adj (i)][inf] kashira/[adj (na) stem/N] {*/datta} kashira
N1|N2-the male version is kanau which is used only in
fairly informal situations. the formation rules are the same
N3-S formal kashira is acceptable if the situation is
very formal|N4-since kashira and kanau mean i wonder
(present tense) they cannot be used for expressions like
"i wondered" for this to omou is added.

Front 52

kata
*N2

Back 52

suf
[vmasu] kata
N1|N2-sinojapanese suru verbs need prt no before shikata

Front 53

kawari ni
N1

Back 53

phr
[N] no kawari ni/[V/adj (i)][inf] kawari ni
[adj (na) stem] {na/datta} kawari ni
N1-in "N1 no kawari ni N2" N2 is considered the
substitute for N1 which is the originally intended item.
in S1inf kawari ni S2 an action or a state identified by S2
takes place to make up for a counter-action or counter-
state represented in S1

Front 54

keredomo
N1

Back 54

conj
[Sinf] keredomo
N1-in very polite speech S1 can be in the informal form
the informal forms of keredomo are kedo,kedomo,keredo

Front 55

kikoeru
N1

Back 55

v gr 2
N1-kikoeru is diffrent from the regular potential form of
kiku in that the former indicates a passive auditory
potentiality,whereas the latter indicates that the
speaker or subject can hear sound not passively but
actively

Front 56

kiraida
N1-3

Back 56

adj (na)
N1-requires the wa-ga construction.the expriencer by wa
and the disliked object ga|N2-in sub clauses wa changes
to ga|N3-"dislike a lot" is expressed by dai-kiraida

Front 57

koto(1)

Back 57

N
[V/adj (i)][inf] koto/[adj (na) stem] {na/datta} koto
[N] no koto

Front 58

koto(2)
N1

Back 58

nom
[V/adj (i)][inf] koto/[adj (na) stem] {na/datta} koto
[N] {de aru/de atta/datta} koto
N1-the nom koto turns not just a verb or adjective but an
entire S into a noun phrase. Once a S has become a
noun phrase, it can be used anywhere a regular noun
phrase can be used.

Front 59

koto ga aru(1)

Back 59

phr
[Sinf past] koto ga aru |N1|N2|N3-in the Sinf past koto
ga aru structure, a past time adverb can be used in S

Front 60

koto ga aru(2)
*N2

Back 60

phr
[V/adj (i) inf nonpast] koto ga aru
[adj (na) stem] na koto ga aru/[N] {no/de aru} koto ga aru
N1|N2-adverbs of freq are sometimes used with this
expression

Front 61

koto ga dekiru
N1

Back 61

phr
[Vinf nonpast] koto ga dekiru
N1-used in the wa-ga construction|N2-if a verb is closely
associated with its direct object, "o V koto" can be
deleted

Front 62

koto ni naru
*N2

Back 62

phr
[Vinf nonpast] koto ni {naru/natta}
N1|N2-even when the expriencer himself decides to do
s.t., it sounds more indirect and more humble for him
to use this construction rather than to use koto ni suru
N3-kotto ni natte iru indicates that some decision took
place at some point in the past and that the result of
that decision is still in effect.

Front 63

koto ni suru
N1

Back 63

phr
[Vinf nonpast] koto ni {suru/shita}
N1-if one decides not to do something, the verb before
koto ni suru should be negated|N2

Front 64

koto wa
N1-3

Back 64

phr
[V1/adj (i)1][inf] koto wa [V2/adj (i)2]
[adj (na) stem1 na koto/N1] wa [adj (na) stem2/N2]
{da/desu}
[adj (na) stem1/N1] datta koto wa [adj (na) stem2/N2]
{datta/deshita} |N1-in this construction, where the main
verb is in the past tense the tense of the first verb/adj can
be changed into the nonpast tense.|N2-the verb/adj/noun
before koto wa is normally marked in the informal form
even if the final predicate is marked in the formal form
N3-normally this construction is followed by a disjunctive
conjunction

Front 65

kudasai
*N2-5

Back 65

aux v
[Vte] kudasai/[Vneg] nai de kudasai
N1|N2-douzo makes it more polite|N3-in very informal
speech kudasai may drop(often by females)
N4-the negative question form makes a request more
polite|N5-kure can also be used in place of kudasai
in informal male speech

Front 66

kun
N1

Back 66

suf
[last name] kun/[first name] kun/[last first] kun
N1-a male may address females of lower rank by kun. A
female student may address males of equal or lower rank
by kun. Such addresses are commonly used in situations
such as schools and companies.

Front 67

kurai
N1

Back 67

prt
[Number-Counter] kurai
[demonstrative {pronoun/adj}] kurai/[inter pronoun] kurai
N1-kurai may be freely replaced by gurai without a
change in meaning

Front 68

kureru(1)
*N2-4

Back 68

v gr 2
N1|N2-when the giver is the first person,kureru cannot be
used|N3-the polite honorific version of kureru is kudasaru
N4-the indirect object is often omitted if it refers to the
speaker in declarative S or to the hearer in interrogative S.

Front 69

kureru(2)
*N2-4*

Back 69

aux v gr 2
[Vte] kureru |N1|N2-if the person recieving the benefit of
the action is the direct object, the indirect object is
omitted|N3-if the main verb of the S is intransitive, the
person recieving the benefit of the action is not marked
by ni.|N4-the polite(honorific) version of kureru is
kudasaru|N5

Front 70

kuru(1)
N1

Back 70

v irr
N1-kuru commonly describes a movement towards a place
where the speaker physically exists, however it can also
describe a movement in a direction where the speaker
has placed his viewpoint or where he feels strong empathy

Front 71

kuru(2)
**N3

Back 71

aux v irr
[Vte] kuru
N1|N2|N3-the experiencer of the inception process or the
continuation of the action must be the speaker himself or
someone with whom the speaker empathizes

Front 72

mada
N1*

Back 72

adv
N1-in affirmative S mada always corresponds to still, in
negative S it corresponds to yet when an action has not
yet been taken, and still in other situations|N2

Front 73

made

Back 73

prt
[noun(time/location)] made/[Vinf nonpast] made
[Number-Counter] made
N1-"X made" and "until X" do not have the same meaning
when X represents a duration of time.

Front 74

made ni

Back 74

prt
[N] (time) made ni/[Vinf nonpast] made ni

Front 75

mae ni
N1

Back 75

conj
[Vinf nonpast] mae ni/[N] no mae ni
N1-mae ni is used when the speaker knows when s.t.
is going to take place.|N2-the verb before mae ni is
always nonpast,even if the tense of the main verb is past

Front 76

mai
N1-2

Back 76

pref
mai [N of time]
N1-mai cannot be used when nouns of time are preceded
by numbers|N2-mai is usually used with japanese origin
words of one or two syllables or shorter chinese origin
words

Front 77

mama
N1-2

Back 77

n
[Vinf past] mama/[adj (i)] mama/[adj (na) stem na/N no]
mama |N1-the verb before mama has to be nonpast if the
ver is negative.if a verb that precedes mama o is non-
violitional, the verb can be nonpast even if the main
transitive verb is past|N2-when mama is followed directly
by a verb(other than suru) de can be inserted between
mama and the verb

Front 78

mashou
**N3-7

Back 78

aux
[Vmasu] mashou |N1|N2|N3-in invational situations the
subject is usually omitted.|N4-mashou with ka asks
whether the hearer will accept the speakers volitional
action or invitation|N5-negative volition is usually
expressed by simple nonpast negatives|N6-"lets not do
s.t." is expressed by 1- "Vinf no wa yamemashou" or 2-
"Vneg naide okimashou"|N7-in indirect speech or in S
with verbs like omou, the informal volitional form is used
N8-unlike english the volitional future and the simple
future are expressed by different forms

Front 79

mieru
N1-3

Back 79

v gr 2
N1-mieru can mean "look ~" if it is preceded by the
adverbial form of an adj or "N ni"|N2-mieru can be used
as a polite version of kuru"come" as in company coming
N3-a visible object is marked by ga not o

Front 80

miru

Back 80

aux v gr 2
[Vte] miru

Front 81

mo(1)
N1-3

Back 81

prt
[N] mo/[N prt] mo
N1-when the element X mo appears in a S, a related S
with the element Y(plus particle if necessary) in place
of X mo is presupposed.thus when X mo appears in a
S, X mo is always the element under focus in that S
N2-there are cases in which X mo is used althrough it
does not exactly replace the element Y in the
presupposed S.|N3-"X mo A da" cannot be used to
mean "X is also A" in the sense that X is A as well as
s.t. else."X mo A da" can be used only when
"Y wa/ga A da" is presupposed

Front 82

mo(2)
*N2-3

Back 82

prt
[N] mo/[N prt] mo/[quantifier] mo/[one counter] mo
[WH word] mo/[Vmasu] mo shinai
N1|N2-nanimo and daremo are used only in neg S
N3-Vmasu mo is always followed by a neg form of suru

Front 83

mou
N1-2

Back 83

adv
N1-mou expresses the idea that s.o or s.t is not in the
same state he or it was in some time ago. thus mou
corresponds to "already" or "now" in affirmative declarative
S's, "yet" or "already" in affirmative interrogative S's and
"(not) any more" or "(not) any longer" in neg S's
N2-the opposite concept of mou is expressed by mada

Front 84

~mo ~mo
N1-3

Back 84

str
[N](prt) mo [N](prt) mo [N](prt) mo
[adj (i) stem] ku mo [adj (i) stem] ku mo Neg
[adj (na) stem/N] de mo [adj (na) stem /N] de mo Neg
N1-can be used as the subject, as the direct/indirect
object, or in any other way in which a regular noun
phrase is used.|N2-althrough this can be indefinitely long
noun phrase,it is not repeated no more than 3 to 4 times
N3-the predicate can be either affirmative or neg.

Front 85

mono (da)
*N2-3*

Back 85

n
[Vinf/Vmasu tai] mono da/[adj (i)/(na)][inf] mono (da)
N1|N2-when mono indicates a reason or an excuse it is
used only in very informal speech|N3-mono is
contracted into mon in very colloquial speech|N4

Front 86

morau(1)
*N2-4

Back 86

v gr 1
N1|N2-the humble polite version is itadaku|N3-the giver
can also be marked by the source kara however if the
giver is not human, kara is more appropriate than ni
N4-in declarative/interrogative S if the subject is the
speaker, it is often omitted.

Front 87

morau(2)
**N3-5

Back 87

aux v gr 1
[Vte] morau
N1|N2|N3-humble polite version is itadaku
N4-the giver cannot be marked by kara
N5-in declarative/interrogative S, if the subject is the
speaker it is often omitted

Front 88

na
N1-2

Back 88

prt
[Vinf nonpast] na
N1-used as a strong neg imperative and is seldom used
except in highly emotional situations,however the addition
of yo after na serves to soften the force of the statement
N2-a female speaker normally does not use the na
imperative, she uses "Vneg nai de"

Front 89

nado
N1-2

Back 89

prt
N1-a particle normally follows nado. particles other
than ga,o and wa can precede nado but depending
on the context, this order gives the S a more
derogatory meaning|N2-if the main predicate is
negated nado often conveys a sense of humbleness
especiallywhen the subject is the speaker
or a member of his in group

Front 90

nagara
N1-2

Back 90

conj
[Vmasu] nagara
N1-the action expressed by nagara is always secondary
to the action expressed in the main clause
N2-cannot be used when the subjects of the two actions
are different

Front 91

nai de
**N3-4

Back 91

phr
[Vneg] nai de
N1|N2|N3-is used onl with verbs. It cannot be used with
adjectives|N4-in cases where no auxiliaries are used
nai de implies that the speaker is emphasizing negation
because somehow the proposition expressed in the
nai de clause is contrary to his expectation

Front 92

nakereba naranai
N1-2

Back 92

phr
[Vneg] nakereba naranai
[adj(i) stem] ku nakereba naranai
[adj (na)/N] de nakereba naranai
N1-the contracted forms Vneg nakerya naranai
Vneg nakya(a) naranai are also used in conversation
N2-negative obligation cannot be expressed by the
negative form of this pattern. it is expressed by
nakutemo ii

Front 93

naku naru

Back 93

phr
[Vinf neg] naku naru/[adj(i)stem] ku naku naru
[adj(na)stem/N] {de wa/ja} naku naru

Front 94

nakute

Back 94

phr
[Vinf neg] nakute/[adj(i)stem] ku nakute
[adj(na)stem/N] {de wa/ja} nakute

Front 95

nara
**N3-7

Back 95

conj
[V/adj(i)][inf] (no) nara/[adj(na)stem/N {*/datta (no)} nara
N1|N2|N3-since nara is the simplified conditional form of
the copula, it requires a noun or a noun equivalent thus
if the preceding element is not a noun it is nominalized
by no.the stems of na type adjectives dont need no.
N4-when S1 is nonpast S1 nara S2 cannot be used if it
is nonsensical to suppose the truth of S1. 3 types:
1-if S1 never fails to happen 2-if one can never tell if it
is true or not 3-if the speaker already knows S1 is fact.
N5-S1 nara S2 cannot be used if the completion or
actualization of S1 brings about S2|N6-when S2 in
S1 nara S2 is past, S1 must be a past event or state
N7-no nara often becomes n nara in conversation

Front 96

nasai
*N2

Back 96

aux v
[Vmasu] nasai
N1|N2-nasai is the polite version of nonpolite imperatives

Front 97

ne
N1*N3-6

Back 97

prt
N1-the sentence preceding ne can be any informal or
formal S except nonpolite imperative|N2|N3-ne is
sometimes used to draw the hearers attention to
something or to confirm that the hearer has understood
what has been said up to that point. Ne is typically used
in this manner in telephone conversations.
N4-{~te/kara} ne is specifically used to give a reason or
cause for the speaker's state of mind or feelings in a very
indirect and vague fashion|N5-the ne of is used after
yo of assertion "yo ne" means i assert that ~ but dont
you agree?|N6-ne is used after ka "ka ne" means i am
not sure if ~, am i right?

Front 98

ni(1)
N1-5

Back 98

prt
N1-if a time expression can be specified uniquely in
terms of digits the adverb can take ni, otherwise it cant
N2-ni is optional with certain time nouns such as natsu
and toki the version with ni stresses the point of time
more than the version without ni does.|N3-the time noun
aida also takes ni if the event in the main clause does
not continue for the entire duration of the event in the
aida clause. if the event in the main clause covers the
same duration as the event in the aida clause,ni cant be
used|N4-when a specific time expression takes goro ni
may drop|N5-ni can be used freely with various time
expressions, as long as it occurs with a time expression
that can be uniquely specified in terms of digits.

Front 99

ni(2)
N1-2

Back 99

prt
N1-the verb is typically transitive and is related to an
action that involves s.t. that can be transferred from one
person to another.|N2-any transitive verb used in the Vte
ageru or Vte kureru construction can take ni, if the verb
does not take a human direct object,ex "read" doesnt
"praise" does. an intransitive verb can never take ni even
if it is used in the Vte ageru or Vte kureru construction

Front 100

ni(3)
N1*N3

Back 100

prt
N1-ni is typically used in passive,causitive
morau/te morau constructions and with verbs such as
kariru "borrow", kiku "hear" which require a noun phrase
representing the source of the direct object.|N2|
N3-ni of source can be replaced by kara but ni of agent
cannot

Front 101

ni(4)

Back 101

RE1-should not be confused with de1
RE2-should not be confused with ni6

Front 102

ni(5)
N1-2

Back 102

prt
[Vmasu] ni
N1-can be used only with verbs of motion(verbs which
express a movement from one place to another)verbs
like hashiru "run" are not considered motion verbs
N2-if the verb in Vmasu ni is a compound verb of the
structure N suru such as "shigotosuru" suru is
sometimes omitted

Front 103

ni(6)
N1-4

Back 103

prt
N1-verbs such as iru,aru,sumu typically occur with the
locational ni.|N2-the verb aru often takes the particle ni
but when aru is used for an event, ni cannot be used. in
this case de is used|N3-noun phrases with ni often occur
as topics|N4-if a location phrase which indicates the
existence of s.o or s.t modifies a noun phrase, ni cannot
be used. in this case no is used

Front 104

ni(7)

Back 104

no notes or formations

Front 105

ni chigainai
N1

Back 105

phr
[Vinf/adj(i)][inf] ni chigainai
[adj(na)stem/N] {*/datta} ni chigainai
N1-the S-equivelent that precedes ni chigainai can be
nominalized by no in written nihongo, yeilding more
credibility to the speaker's assertion

Front 106

nikui
*N2*

Back 106

aux adj (i)
[Vmasu] nikui
N1|N2-the subject of the nikui construction can be the
subject of an intransitive verb. it can be the direct object
of a transitive verb.it can be the indirect object of a
transitive verb.finally the subject can be N + prt
corresponding in english to prepositon + N|N3

Front 107

ni shite wa
N1

Back 107

prt
[N] (datta) ni shite wa/[Vinf] ni shite wa
N1-ni shite wa is the te form of ni suru plus wa
the literal meaning is "if one makes it"

Front 108

ni suru
N1-2

Back 108

phr
N1-ni suru is usually preceded by a noun or a noun
equivalent,however a noun with a particle is also
possible N2-if the tense is nonpast, ni suru implies
that a decision has just been made, if the past tense
is used the S is ambigious, it means either that a
decision has been made but no action has been
taken or that a decision was made and an action
was also taken.

Front 109

no(1)
*N2-4

Back 109

prt
[N] no [N]/[N prt] no [N]
N1|N2-in A no B, A is sometimes a NP with a prt.
no cannot be omitted because it indicated that the
preceding NP with a prt modifies the following NP.
without no, the NP with the prt is interpreted as an
adverbial phrase which modifies the predicate in the
clause.|N3-the A no B construction can be extended
as in "A no B no C no....."|N4-in A no B, B can be
omitted if its apparent from the context

Front 110

no(2)
N1-2

Back 110

pro
[adj(i) inf nonpast] no/[adj(na)stem] na no
N1-the indefinite pronoun no is a dependent pronoun it
cannot be used by itself. it must be modified by an adj
or a relative clause|N2-no is used in place of a noun
when what it refers to is clear from the context or
situation. things referred to by no are not necessarily
tangible.

Front 111

no(3)
N1-3

Back 111

nom
[V/adj(i)][inf] no/[adj(na)stem/N] {na/datta} no
N1-no makes a N equivalent from a S.a nominalized
S can occur in any position where a NP can appear
except in the position of B in "A wa B da" in that
situation the nominalizer koto is used|N2-nominalized
S are sub clauses and therefore wa cannot occur.
N3-no and koto are sometimes mutually interchangable
however, in general no is used when the preceding
clause expresses s.t. rather concrete or perceptible
while koto is used when the preceding clause expresses
s.t. rather abstract or imperceptible.also there are a
number of idiomatic phrases with koto where koto can
not be raplaced by no

Front 112

no(4)
N1-2

Back 112

prt
[V/adj(i)][inf] no/[adj(na)stem/N] {na/datta} no
N1-the S-final no is derived from no da/no desu through
deletion of da/desu|N2-this no is used by children or
females only in informal situations.there are times when
adult male speakers use no in questions, but they dont
use it in declarative S

Front 113

no da
N1*N3

Back 113

phr
[V/adj(i)][inf] no da/[adj(na)stem/N] {na/datta} no da
N1-in conversation no da/desu often becomes n da/desu
in informal speech, male speakers use n da and females
use no|N2|N3-S no da is also used when no information
is shared by the speaker and the hearer and the speaker
is not explaining or asking for an explanation about
anything. In this case, the speaker is talking as if some
info were shared with the hearer and the effects of this
are to involve the hearer in the affairs he is talking
about and or to impose his idea upon the hearer or at
least to emphasize with his idea emotively.

Front 114

node

Back 114

conj
[V/adj(i)][inf] node/[adj(na)stem/N] {na/datta} node

Front 115

noni(1)
*N2

Back 115

conj
[V/adj(i)][inf] noni/[adj(na)stem/N] {na/datta} noni
N1|N2-in colloquial speech,if the content of the main
clause is predictable the clause often drops. in this
case the S expresses a feeling of discontent on the
part of the speaker

Front 116

noni(2)
N1-2

Back 116

conj
[Vinf nonpast] noni
N1-in the noni construction, only informal nonpast
volitional verbs can precede noni|N2-when the noni
clause is used as the topic no is often deleted in
conversation

Front 117

~no wa ~da
N1*N3-6

Back 117

str
[V/adj(i)][inf] no wa ~ da
[adj(na)stem/N] {na/datta} no wa ~ da
N1-the prt used with the noun or NP between no wa and
da usually drops if the prt does not have any concrete
meaning, or if the meaning of the entire S is somehow
predictable.|N2|N3-the element between no wa and da
cannot be a manner adverb|N4-unlike english the copula
da is normally in the present tense.
N5-the number of no wa ~da S which can be produced
from one S is limited only by the number of elements
which can be placed between no wa and da.
N6-normally the no clause takes wa, marking the entire
clause as presupposed,old,unimportant info,and the
element between no wa and da represents a new,
important piece of info. But sometimes the no clause
takes ga marking the clause as new,important info

Front 118

o- (prefix)
N1-2*N4

Back 118

pref
o [Vmasu] ni naru/o [Vmasu] suru/o [adj(i/na)]/o [N]
N1- O-Vmasu ni naru is an honorific polite expression
and O-Vmasu suru is a humble politee expression
N2-O-adj can be either an honorific polite expression
or a simple polit expression.|N3|N4-O cannot be
attached to the following words:1-adj and nouns which
begin with the [o] sound 2-long words 3-foreign words
there are exceptions to those rules(in dict)

Front 119

o(1)
*N2-4

Back 119

prt
N1|N2-in some constructions o can be replaced by ga
N3-o cannot occure more than once in a clause, whether
it is the direct object marker"o1" or the space
marker "o2".N4-if the direct object is presented as a
topic or a contrastive element o is replaced by wa

Front 120

o(2)

Back 120

prt
when a S involves the verb noboru "climb" there is an
important diffrence between the use of the prt o and ni

Front 121

o(3)

Back 121

prt
RE-the diffrence between o and kara is that o marks the
location from which some movement begins and kara
marks the initial location in movement from one location
to another, thus when focusing o both the new and old
location of s.t. or s.o. kara should be used instead of o.

Front 122

o(4)
*N2-3

Back 122

prt
N1|N2-no matter what person(first,second,third) the
subject of this construction is, the main emotive verb is
normally in the stative te iru/inai form and/or in the past
tense. in a generic statement,however the verb can be
in the non-stative, nonpast form|N3-if the emotive verb
consists of adj(i)stem+suffix mu, it can take the suffix
garu

Front 123

ooi
N1-2*

Back 123

adj (i)
N1-unlike the english "many", the japanese ooi cannot be
used before a noun, except in a relative clause where ooi
is the predicate of the clause not the modifier of the head
noun|N2-ooi cannot be used in front of a noun, but
ooku no can be used that way in written japanese|N3

Front 124

oku
*N2-3

Back 124

aux v gr1
[Vte] oku
N1|N2-with a causative verb, Vte oku can express the
idea that s.o. lets s.o or s.t. remain in his/its present
state,however if the context is not clear, causative
Vte oku can be ambigious|N3-Vte oku may be contracted
into toku or doku in informal conversation

Front 125

o ~ni naru

Back 125

phr
o [Vmasu] ni naru
N1|N2|N3

Front 126

o ~suru
*N2-4

Back 126

phr
o[Vmasu] suru
N1|N2-o Vmasu suru is used only when the speaker's
(or his in-group member's) action involves or affects the
person the speaker wants to be polite to.|N3-there are
some verbs whose humble forms are expressed by
special verbs. the rule in N2 does not apply to these
verbs|N4-when a verb has the form "N suru" its humble
form is "go-/o-N suru" or more politely "go-/o-N itasu".
except for a handful of exceptions which require oo, go
precedes N

Front 127

~owaru
*N2

Back 127

aux v gr1
[Vmasu] owaru
N1|N2-~owaru can be replaced by ~oeru in written
japanese. ~oeru however conjugates as a gr 2 verb

Front 128

rareru(1)

Back 128

aux v gr2
gr 1 verbs [Vneg] reru/gr 2 verbs [Vstem]rareru
irr verbs kuru-korareru suru-sareru
N1-N10

Front 129

rareru(2)

Back 129

aux v gr2
gr 1 verbs [Vcond] ru/gr 2 verbs [Vstem] rareru
irr verbs kuru-korareru suru-dekiru
N1-N10

Front 130

rashii
**N3-5

Back 130

aux adj (i)
[V/adj (i)][inf] rashii/[adj(na)stem/N] {*/datta} rashii
N1N2|N3-neg conjecture is expressed by a neg predicate
and rashii|N4-another use of rashii is "X wa Y rashii"
meaning that X is like the ideal model of y|N5-since
rashii is an i type adj it can also precede nouns

Front 131

-sa
*N2*

Back 131

suf
[adj (i/na) stem] sa
N1|N2-adj(na)stem+sa is not commonly used. it is
suggested that the learner avoid using it|N3

Front 132

sama
N1-3

Back 132

suf
N1-a personal name + sama is not used in
conversational japanese, except in highly polite
speech used to clientele by clerks/attendants of hotels,
restrurants,travel agencies,department stores, etc
N2-sama attached to a personified object shows more
endearment than respect|N3-sama can also be attached
to some action or state related to the hearer
N4-used in written japanese esp after the addresses
name in a letter, etc.

Front 133

saseru
N1-2*N4**N7

Back 133

aux v gr2
gr 1 verbs [Vneg] seru/gr 2 verbs [Vstem] saseru
irr verbs kuru-kosaseru suru-saseru
N1-in the causative construction the causer is usually
marked by wa in main clauses and by ga in sub clauses.
when the main verb is an intransitive verb, the causee is
marked by either o or ni. the choice between the two prt's
depends on the following rule: when ni is used the causee
has taken an action intentionally. o can be used
regardless of the causee's volition|N2-if the main verb is a
transitive verb, the causee can be marked only by ni,
because o can not appear more than once in a clause
thus when the verb is transitive ni is acceptable even if
the causee is not willing to take the action|N3|N4-in
causative S the causer must be equal to or higher than
the causee in terms of status|N5|N6|N7-causative-passive
verbs, which are used in causative-passive S are
constructed by affixing the passive verb ending rareru to
causative verb stems

Front 134

sekkaku
N1

Back 134

adv
N1-sekkaku tends to co-occur with noni or no da kara
sekkaku + N can be uses as a noun phrase free from
any co-occurrence restrictions. sekkaku desu ga is used
to politely decline s.o. offer

Front 135

shi
N1-2

Back 135

conj
[V/adj(i)] shi/[adj(na)/N] {da/datta} shi
N1-shi can be repeated more than once in a clause
N2-there are times when a S ends with shi in order to
weaken the S and obscure the cause/reason

Front 136

shi (adj(i) infix)
N1

Back 136

infix
adjs(i) that do not contain -shi- are for the most part
descriptive adjs that are dependent on the speaker's
objective judgement.in other words, they are adjs which
indicate s.t. that one can objectively measure on some
scale

Front 137

shika
N1

Back 137

prt
[N] shika/[N+prt] shika/[quantifier] shika
N1-shika always occurs with neg predicates

Front 138

shimau
*N2*N4

Back 138

aux v gr1
[Vte] shimau
N1|N2-Vte shimatta also expresses the idea that s.o did
s.t. which he shouldnt have done or s.t. happened which
shouldn't have happened. thus it often implies the agents
regret about what he has done or the speaker's regret or
critism about someones's action or about s.t.that has
happened.|N3|N4-Te shimau and de shimau are
contracted as chau and jau in informal speech and can
be used by male and females.chimau and jimau another
set of contracted forms of te shimau are used only by
male speakers

Front 139

shiru
N1-2

Back 139

v gr1
N1-shiru a nonstative verb, takes the Vte iru form when it
means the stative "know"|N2-when answering in the neg
to the question X o shitte imasu ka"do you know X"
the negative nonstative form shiranai/shirimasen is used
instead of shitte inai/shitte imasen

Front 140

souda(1)
N1-2

Back 140

aux
[V/adj(i)][inf] souda/[adj(na)stem/N] {da/datta} souda
N1-Sinf souda expresses hearsay that is this pattern is
used when the speaker conveys info from some
infomation source without altering it.|N2-info sources are
expressed by "N ni yoru to" "according to N"

Front 141

souda(2)
N1-5*

Back 141

aux adj(na)
[Vmasu] souda/[adj(i/na)stem] souda
N1-souda expresses the speaker's conjecture based on
visual info thus this expression can be used only when
the speaker directly observes s.t. souda cannot be
used to express the speaker's conjecture concerning a
past event or state|N2-the adj ii"good" and the neg nai
change to yosa and nasa before souda|N3-N or N+cop
cannot precede souda but N+cop neg-nonpast can
N4-the neg forms of verbs dont precede souda Vmasu
sou ni/mo nai is used|N5-souda is also used to express
the speaker's conjecture concerning his own
non-volitional future actions based on what he feels|N6

Front 142

sore de
RE1-2

Back 142

conj
RE1-"S1 Sore de S2" can be rephrased using node if
sore de means cause or reason. Note however that the
node construction is a single S. the diffrence is that
sore de combines two S much more loosely than node.
RE2-"S1 sore de S2" can be rephrased using
da/desu kara, if S1 indicates a reason or cause for S2

Front 143

sore de wa
N1-3

Back 143

conj
N1-sore de wa is contracted into sore ja or sore jaa in
informal speech|N2-sore de wa is often shortened to
de wa, which is further contracted to jaa or ja.
N3-sore de wa is used in S-initial position and sore "that"
refers to that which is stated in the preceding S or to the
preceding context, the speaker uses sore de wa based
on some nonverbal shared knowledge

Front 144

sore kara
N1-3

Back 144

conj
[Vte/Vmasu] sore kara/[adj(i)stem] ku(te) sore kara
[adj(na)stem] de sore kara/[N1 (to) N2 (to)] sore kara [N3]
N1-sore kara can be used to indicate something which
the speaker almost forgot to mention
N2-sore kara "and then" is often used by the hearer to
elicit more info from the speaker|N3-Vte,Vmasu,adj(i)stem
adj(na)stem de do not have their own tense. the tense is
identical with that of the main verb.

Front 145

sore nara
N1-3

Back 145

conj
N1-sore "that" refers to a previously-spoken S
N2-sore nara has a more formal form sore naraba
and a more informal one sonnara
N3-for restrictions imposed on the S that follows sore
nara see (dict)

Front 146

soretomo
N1*

Back 146

conj
N1-combines statements or questions|N2

Front 147

soshite
N1

Back 147

conj
N1-soshite and sou shite are normally interchangable, but
if sou shite is used in the original sense of "by doing so"
it cannot be replaced by soshite.

Front 148

sugiru
*N2-5

Back 148

aux v gr2
[Vmasu] sugiru/[adj(i/na)stem] sugiru
N1|N2-the stem of ii "good" changes to yo before
sugiru|N3-the neg nai changes to nasa before sugiru
N4-for in "be too ~ for s.o/s.t." is expressed by ni wa
N5-the negative form is suginai, the polite is sugimasu
and the te-form is sugite

Front 149

sukida
N1-3

Back 149

adj (na)
N1-sukida requires the wa~ga construction, the
expriencer is marked by wa and the liked object by ga
N2-in sub clauses the expriencer is marked by ga
N3-"like a lot" is expressed by dai-sukida

Front 150

sukunai
N1-2

Back 150

adj(i)
N1-sukunai cannot be used before a noun,except in a
relative clause where sukunai is the predicate of the
subject of the relative clause|N2-the distinction between
english "few" vs "a few" can be expressed by sukunai
and sukoshi wa

Front 151

suru(1)
*****N6-7*N9

Back 151

v (irr)
N1|N2|N3|N4|N5|N6-sino japanese compounds+suru can
be used as transitive verbs.the sino-japanese compound
itself can also be used as the direct object of suru
N7-in contemporary japanese it is very common to use
suru with loanwords,it is also common to use suru with
sound symbolisms esp phenomimes and psychomimes
N8|N9-suru can be used in the construction
o+Vmasu+suru, a humble polite form of a verb. the
subject of this humble verb must be the speaker or
his in group member. a further degree of humbleness
can be expressed by replacing suru with its humble
itasu/itashimasu

Front 152

suru(2)
N1-2

Back 152

v irr
N1-the S pattern is Topic(subject)+adj(i/na)+{Noun of
bodily part/Noun of attribute}+shite iru/imasu
a bodily part or an attribute must be inalienably
possessed by the subject. in other words it must be
such an essential part of the possessor(=subject) that
he/it cannot exist without the part or the attribute.
N2-in the main clause the verb suru always takes the
te iru form, but in a relative clause te iru may be replaced
by ta

Front 153

suru(3)
N1

Back 153

v irr
N1-if s.t. is perceived visually, either the ~ o shite iru
structure or the ~ wa ~ ga structure is used

Front 154

suru(4)
N1

Back 154

v irr
N1-when suru is used to mean "laspe of time", it can
only be used in a sub clause

Front 155

suru to
N1

Back 155

conj
N1-to of suru to is the conj to4

Front 156

uchi ni
N1-3

Back 156

conj
(V:stative) [Vinf nonpast] uchi ni
[Vinf neg nonpast] uchi ni/[Vte] iru uchi ni
[adj(i)inf nonpast] uchi ni/[adj(na)stem] na uchi ni
[N] no uchi ni
N1-the uchi ni clause epresses the general time during
which a given action or state occurs. uchi ni is preceded
by verbs describing states or progressive actions, or by
adjs, or by nouns expressing duration|N2-the tense before
uchi ni is always nonpast, regardless of the tense of the
main clause.|N3-the verb before uchi ni is frequently
negated

Front 157

wa(1)
N1 N2

Back 157

prt
N1-when wa marks X the speaker usually assumes that
the hearer knows what X refers to. thus, NP which can
be marked by wa are as follows: 1-common nouns
whose referents have already been introduced into the
discourse linguistically or extra linguistically. 2-proper
nouns 3-nouns whose referents can be uniquely
identified(that is they are one of a kind) 4-generic nouns
it is noted that wa never marks WH-words
N2-when wa is used as a topic marker, as in "X wa Y"
X is s.t the rest of the S(Y) is about, and the focus of
the S falls on Y or part of Y

Front 158

wa(1)
N3 N4 N5 N6

Back 158

|N3-whether wa is being used as a topic marker or as a
contrastive marker is not always clear. here are some
general rules for determining whether a given wa is
topical or contrastive 1-when more than one wa appears
in a S, the first is usually understood to be the topic
marker, the second wa is more contrastive than the first
and so on. 2-when X wa is pronounced with stress, it
marks a contrastive element|N4-when wa is used in
neg S it marks the negated element.this is a special use
of wa as a contrastive marker|N5-there are rules for prt
ellipsis when wa marks a NP with case markers(ie prts
such as ga and o) 1-when wa marks X ga or X o ga or o
drops 2-when wa marks X n1,2,3,4, X de, X to, X kara,
X made or X yori the case marker usually remains and
wa follows it forming a double prt|N6-the topical wa does
not appear in sub clauses

Front 159

wa(2)
N1-3

Back 159

prt
N1-wa sometiimes also expresses the speaker's intimacy
or friendliness|N2-wa can follow any declarative S but
cannot follow the violitional forms of verbs|N3-other S prt
such as ne and yo can occur with wa. in this case, wa
must precede these prts

Front 160

~wa ~da
N1-4

Back 160

str
N1-the copula can be used in place of a predicate if the
meaning can be understood from context.|N2-in "A wa B
da" B may be a NP or a NP with a prt. rules about prt
ellipsis and retention follows: 1-ga,o,e,and ni1,6 must
drop 2-ni2,3,4 and de1,2 may drop 3-de,to,kara,made
usually do not drop|N3-when the copula is used for a
predicate, it usually appears in the nonpast tense
regardless of the tense of the predicate|N4-in "A wa B
da" A wa may drop if it can be understood from the
context

Front 161

~wa ~ga
N1-2*

Back 161

str
N1-"A wa B ga C" in this construction C usually
expresses s.t. about B and "B ga C" expresses s.t.
about A|N2-S utilizing this construction are three types
1-A is human, and "B ga C" expresses A's physical and
or mental state 2-B is part of A and C expresses s.t.
about B which in turn expresses s.t. about A 3-B is a
member of A, and C expresses s.t. about B |N3

Front 162

wa ikenai
N1-2

Back 162

phr
[Vte] wa ikenai
N1-in Vte wa ikenai, the second person subject is usually
omitted|N2-Vte wa ikenai is often used as a neg answer
to Vte mo iidesu

Front 163

wakaru
N1-3

Back 163

v gr1
N1-the basic pattern for this verb is the ~ wa ~ ga pattern
the experiencer of wakaru takes ni optionally|N2-because
wakaru is already a potential verb, it cannot take the
potential form|N3-wakaru normally takes ga to indicate
the object of comprehension, but must take o when
"non -spontaneous comphrehension" is involved, as in
causative S or S in which the experiencer makes a
conscious effort to understand s.t

Front 164

wake da
N1-2

Back 164

phr
[V/adj(i)][inf] wake da/[adj(na)stem] {na/datta} wake da
[N] {to iu/datta} wake da
N1-wake can be used as a full noun, meaning "reason"
N2-wake de is the te-form of wake da

Front 165

-ya
N1

Back 165

suf
N1-the suffix ya is sometimes used to downgrade a
person. this use however is very restricted

Front 166

ya
N1-3

Back 166

conj
N1-ya is used to combine two or more nouns or NPs. it
cannot be used to combine predicates|N2-N ya N can be
used as a noun phrase in any position where a single
noun can be used. it can be used as the subject or as
the direct object or as the indirect object
N3-N ya N cannot appear in the position of X in the
X ga Y da construction because ga in X ga Y da is a
highly exaustive listing marker

Front 167

yahari
N1-3

Back 167

adv
N1-yahari is a speaker-oriented adverb because its use
is based on the speaker's subjective and presuppositional
standards. its overuse in conversations makes a
discourse overly subjective, but its proper use in
conversation makes a discouse sound like real japanese
N2-yahari can be positioned S-initial or S-medially just
like other adverbs. the S-initial yahari is more emphatic
than the S-medial yahari. the S-final yahari sounds like
an after-throught, and its usage is slightly marginal.
N3-yappari is a more emphatic and emotive version of
yahari, owing to is glottal stop

Front 168

yasui
**N3

Back 168

aux adj(i)
[Vmasu] yasui
N1|N2|N3-if the subject of the yasui-construction is under
focus, it is marked by ga|N4

Front 169

yo
N1-5

Back 169

prt
N1-in this construction the S preceding yo can be any inf
or formal S except a question|N2-a S preceding yo can
be an inf or a formal request. when yo is used in this way
the S becomes more forceful.|N3-another S-final prt may
be attached to S yo, yielding the meaning "i assert S
and dont you agree?" "S yo ne" is used when the
speaker wishes to mitigate the force of his assertion
by talking as if the content of S were also known to the
hearer. S yo ne can also be used when the speaker is
addressing s.o who doesnt know about an asserted
fact and there is another person nearby who is aware
of it. In such circumstances, the speaker asks the
person who shares the asserted fact for his agreement
at the end of the S|N4-in nonpolite, informal speech
sex diffrences are expressed by a combination of yo and
the female speech markers wa and no|N5-in contrast to
yo ne is used when the speaker and the hearer share
some specific info

Front 170

youda
N1-4

Back 170

aux adj(na)
[V/adj(i)][inf] youda/[adj(na)stem] {na/datta} youda
[N] {no/datta} youda/[demonstrative] youda
N1-when the speaker uses youda, his statement is
based on firsthand, reliable info(usually visual info)
N2-youda can be used in counter-factual situations, in
this case the adverb marude "just" can be used for
emphasis|N3-youda is a na type adj and has the
prenominal form youna and the adverbial for youni
N4-the colloquil version of youda is mitaida, which is
also a na type adj. the uses of mitaida are exactly the
same as those for youda.the form rules are in the dict

Front 171

youni(1)
N1-2

Back 171

conj
[Vinf nonpast{[pot/neg}] youni
N1-although youni can be used with almost any informal,
nonpast verb, it is most commonly used with potential
verb forms and negative verb forms|N2-~youni iu
"tell s.o to do s.t" ~youni naru "reach the point where ~"
and ~youni suru "try to ~" are idiomatic uses of youni

Front 172

youni(2)
N1-2

Back 172

aux adj(na)
[V/adj(i)][inf] youni/[adj(na)stem] {na/datta} youni
[N] {no/datta} youni
N1-youni1 expresses purpose but youni2 doesnt it
expresses similarity, especially in appearance.
N2-youni can express a counterfactual situation. the
adverb marude "just" is often used to emphasize
counterfactuality

Front 173

~youni iu
N1-2

Back 173

phr
[Vinf nonpast] youni iu
N1-youni iu can be used either as an indirect imperative
or to mean "say in such a way that ~" i.e. the use of
youni1. in the former case, the verb must be a controllabe
verb, a verb that represents s.t. controllable by human
volition. in the latter case the verb must be a
non controllable verb or a potential form of verbs.
N2-when youni iu is used as an indirect imperative, the
verb iu can be replaced by other verbs such as "ask"
"order" "request"

Front 174

~youni naru
N1-2

Back 174

phr
[Vinf nonpast] youni naru
N1-although ~youni naru usually indicates a gradual
change, when it is preceded by an affirmative verb the
change may not take place gradually. thus an adverb such
as "suddenly" can co-occur with an affirmative verb and
~youni naru. when ~youni naru is preceded by a neg verb
however, the change must take place gradually. if the
change is not gradual, ~naku naru is used in place of
~nai youni naru.|N2-youni natte iru emphasizes a current
state that has come about after a long process|N3
N4-youni by itself can be used as an adverbial phrase
along with main verbs other than naru.

Front 175

~youni suru
N1-2*N4

Back 175

phr
[Vinf nonpast] youni suru
N1-~youni shite iru expresses s.o's habitual act of making
sure that he or s.o else will do (or will not do) s.t.
N2-the subjects in the youni clause and in the main
clause may or may not be identical.|N3|N4-when an
adj(i/na) or N is used before youni suru, the verb naru
is used as follows (in dict)

Front 176

yori(1)
N1*

Back 176

prt
[N] yori/[V/adj(i)][inf nonpast] yori/[adj(na)stem] na yori
[N] de aru yori
N1-either a NP or a S precedes yori. when verbs precede
yori, they are usually nonpast. however there are a few
cases where past tense verbs are used|N2

Front 177

yori(2)
N1

Back 177

prt
N1-the use of yori as a marker indicating a set point in
terms of location can be extended to more abstract
locations

Front 178

~you to omou
N1-3

Back 178

phr
[Vinf volition] to omou/[Vinf nonpast] mai to omou
N1-when the subject is not the first person the nonpast
form of omou cannot be used. also ~you to omou cannot
be used as a question.|N2-the neg version of
~you to omou is Vinf nonpast ~mai to omou
N3-the verb that precedes you must be a verb that
represents s.t. controllabe by human volition. a passive
verb can be used with ~you to omou however if the
speaker perceives the passive situation as somehow
controllable

Front 179

zutsu
N1-2

Back 179

prt
N1-the particle zutsu is used only after a quantifier
(=an expression of quantity)
N2-a S without zutsu can express virtually the same
fact. a S with zutsu focuses on equal distrubution of
quantity, but a S without zutsu doesnt

Front 180

tachi
N1

Back 180

suf
personal pronoun+tachi/human proper noun+tachi/
human noun+tachi
N1-kanojo "she" can take tachi but kare "he" cannot

Front 181

tai
N1-4

Back 181

aux adj(i)
[Vmasu] tai
N1-Since Vmasu tai expresses a very personal feeling
it its usually used only for the first person in declarative
S's and for the second person in interrogative S's. for the
third person "Vmasu ta gatte iru" "is showing signs of
wanting to do s.t" is used. Vmasu tai is used with the
third person is acceptable however in the following:
1-in the past tense 2-in indirect/semi direct speech
3-in explanatory situations 4-in conjecture expressions
N2-in some situations, if the verb in Vmasu tai is a
transitive verb the direct object can be marked either by
ga or o. in general the choice between ga and o seems
to depend on the degree of desire, that is when the desire
to do s.t is high ga is preferred, when low o is used
under the following conditions ga cannot be used even if
the degree of desire is high 1-when a long element
intervenes between the direct object and the verb
2-when the main verb is in the passive form 3-when the
preceding noun is not the direct object|N3-in the
construction "Vmasu ta gatte iru" ga can never be used
to mark the direct object.|N4-Vmasu tai cannot be used
to express an invitation

Front 182

tamaranai
*N2-3

Back 182

phr
[adj(i)stem] kute tamaranai
N1|N2-the adjs used before te/de refer to human feelings
N3-there is no affirmative counterpart of this construction

Front 183

tame (ni)
N1-2

Back 183

n
[V/adj(i)][inf] tame ni/[adj(na)stem] {na/datta} tame ni
[N] {no/datta} tame ni/ [demonstrative adj] tame ni
N1-tame ni expresses a cause or reason when it is
preceded by an adj(i) or an adj(na) or when the main
clause describes a noncontrollable situation and/or when
the tame ni clause is in the past tense, in these cases
it never expresses purpose|N2-the ni of tame ni can be
dropped if a phrase(s) intervenes between the main verb
and tame ni

Front 184

~tara
N1-6

Back 184

conj
[V/adj(i/na)/N+copula][inf past] ra
N1-the meaining of S1 tara S2 varies depending on the
cotents of S1 and S2 and also on the situation in which
this construction is used. however, S1 always represents
an antecedent and S2 a subsequence. if the relation
doesnt hold this construction cannot be used.
N2-In S1 tara S2, it is often the case that S1 represents
a condition and S2 event which occurs under that
condition. therefore, the whole S basically means "when
S1 is satisfied S2 takes place" or "S1 brings about S2"
N3-tara may mean "when" in one case and "if" in another
tara means "when" if S1 is a certainty, if not tara means
"if". moshi before S1 tara makes S's unambigious, it
always means "if S1"|N4-in S1 tara S2 can be a
command, a request, a suggestion, an invitation, or
a volitional S|N5-S1 tara S2 can also be used in
counterfactual situations|N6-when S2 in "S1 tara S2"
represents a past action, the action cannot be one
intentionally taken by the agent after the action or
event represented by S1

Front 185

~tara dou desu ka
*N2

Back 185

phr
[Vinf past] ra dou desu ka
N1|N2-the informal version is "Vinf past ra dou" more
polite versions are "Vinf past ra dou deshou (ka)",
"Vinf past ra ikaga desu ka" and "Vinf past ra ikaga
deshou (ka)

Front 186

~tari ~tari suru
N1-5

Back 186

phr
[V/adj(i/na)/N+copula][inf past] ri (suru)
the "X tari Y tari suru" construction generally
expresses an inexhaustive listings of actions or states.
"inexhaustive" means that in a given situation there may
be additional, unstated actions or states.(the exhaustive
listing of actions or states is expressed by the te-form)
N2-suru usually follows "X tari Y tari" regardless of the
part of speech of X and Y, and expresses the tense, the
aspect(e.g progressive,perfect) and the formality level of
the S|N3-this construction usually lists two actions or two
states, but it can list more than two actions or two states
sometimes only one action or state is listed in this
construction|N4-if "X tari Y tari suru" is not the final
segment of a S and the predicate is an adj, suru may be
omitted. if the predicate is a verb, however suru cannot be
omitted|N5-a slightly diffrent pattern, "X tari Y tari da" is
also used in some situations. this pattern is used when a
speaker describes s.o's or s.t's inconstant state

Front 187

-tatte
N1-2

Back 187

conj
[Vinf past] tte/[adj(i)stem] kutatte
[adj(na)stem/N] dat(tat)te
N1-tatte is used strictly in informal spoken nihongo, and
is used to indicate s.t. counter to fact. however the
counterfactual(or subjunctive) nature of this construction
is not very strong.|N2-tatte can take donna ni meaning
"no matter how"

Front 188

te form
N1-4

Back 188

te-form
N1-the te-form functions, in part, to link S's. that is if the
last element of the predicate of a clause is the te-form,
it means that that caluse is not the end of the S and that
another predicate or clause follows it|N2-the meaning of
the te-form varies according to context, but generally
corresponds to and or -ing in participal constructions
N3-when the te-form links two predicates, the
relationship between the two is often one of the following:
(A1:the action or state expressed by the first predicate
A2:the action or state expressed by the second predicate)
1-A1 and A2 occur sequentially 2-A1 and A2 are two
states of s.o or s.t 3-A1 is the reason for or the cause of
A2 (this usage is very common 4-A1 is the means by
which s.o does A2 or the manner in which s.o does A2
5-A1 is constrasted with A2 6-A2 is unexpected in terms
of A1|N4-the te-form can be repeated more than once in
a clause. the te-form can list verbs and adjs exhaustively
N5-te-form verbs are also used with such expressions as
iru2, kara, and wa ikenai

Front 189

te mo
N1-3

Back 189

conj
[V/adj(i/na)]te mo/[N]de mo
N1-the basic meaning of te mo is the same as the english
phrase "even if ~"|N2-~te mo iidesu ka is an idiomatic
expression used to request permission to do s.t. if the
answer is in the affirmative it is "hai iidesu" if neg it is
"le ikemasen"|N3-WH-word ~ te mo means
"no matter WH-"

Front 190

temo ii
N1-4

Back 190

phr
[V/adj(i/na)/N+copula]te mo ii
N1-when "te mo ii" is preceded by a verb, it means
permission|N2-~nakute mo ii, the neg te-form with mo ii
means "it is all right if ~ not ~" or "do not have to do~"
N3|N4-te mo ii sometimes appears with WH-words like
nani and ikura. in this case the expression means
"it is all right no matter what/who/how much/etc. ~" or
"it doesnt matter what/who/how much ~"

Front 191

to(1)
N1-4

Back 191

prt
N1-to is used to list things exhaustively. the final to is
usually omitted, but the others are not.|N2-to connects
NP's only. thus it cannot be used for "and" in S's
N3-"N1 to N2 (to N3....)" is a NP, it can occur anywhere
nouns can occur.|N4-when "N1 to N2" is used as the
subject of a S, the S may be ambigious. if the predicate
contains reciprocal worsds however S's with "N1 to N2"
in subject position are not ambiguous

Front 192

to(2)
N1-2

Back 192

prt
N1-when Y is the subject of a clause, "X to" indicates
that X and Y have a reciprocal relationship. to often
corresponds to the english "with" as in "in the company
of". to also appears with such reciprocal vers and adjs
as marry,quarrel etc|N2-in reciprocal S's the subject and
X in "X to" are interchangable

Front 193

to(3)
N1-4

Back 193

prt
[Quotation] to/[phonomime] to/[phenomime] to
[psychomime] to
N1-to is basically used to mark a quotation, this use of to
however has been extended further to cover indirect
quotations and even thoughts. note that in nihongo to is
necessary for both direct and indirect quotations
N2-To is used to mark the content of such actions as
think,feel,think|N3-to is also used with phonomimes, agian
the idea is that s.o/s.t makes the sound marked by to
when doing s.t.|N4-when a sound is repeated twice like
batabata to can be omitted.

Front 194

to(4)
N1-2

Back 194

conj
[V/adj(i/na)/N+copula][inf nonpast] to
N1-in "S1 to S2" S1 must be nonpast even if it expresses
a past event or action. tense is expressed in S2
N2-in "S1 to S2" S2 cannot be a command,request
suggestion,invitation, or a volitional S

Front 195

~to ieba
N1-3

Back 195

phr
N1-to ieba literally means "if you say that ~" but it is used
as a topic presentation expression meaning "speaking of"
N2-usually a NP is presented by to ieba, but any S
element is possible|N3-the informal form of to ieba is
tte ieba

Front 196

~to iu
N1-4

Back 196

phr
N1-to iu is a combination of the quote marker to and iu
N2|N3-to iu is optional if the preceding element is not a
noun or a clause which represents a quotation.
N4-when to iu is used at the end of a S, it means hearsay
the S-final to iu is used only in written nihongo

Front 197

toka
N1-3

Back 197

conj
[N] toka [N] toka/[Sinf] toka [Sinf] toka suru
N1-the conj toka is a combination of the quote marker to3
and ka1 that is why toka is often followed by the verb iu.
when followed by iu it is not a conj it is a quote marker.
the ka indicates the speaker's uncertainty about the
quoted report.|N2- "N1 to ka iu N2" meaning "N2 that is
called n1 or something like that" is another example of
toka usage.|N3-"S toka S toka suru" is used when a
statement refers to s.t in general rather than to s.t specific

Front 198

toki

Back 198

n
[V/adj(i)][inf] toki/[adj(na)stem {na/datta} toki
[N] {no/datta} toki
N1-toki by itself means "time" but when used as a
dependent noun with a modifying phrase or clause it
means "at the time when" or "when"
N2-the clause preceding toki is a type of relative clause
therefore the basic rules for relative clauses apply to this
construction. the following two are particulary important
1-if the subject of the toki clause is diffrent from that of
the main clause, it is marked by ga 2-the predicate form is
usually informal except that da after adj(na)stem and N
changes to na and no respectively.|N3-the prt ni after toki
is optional. with ni, time is emphasized and sometimes
comes under focus.|N4-if S2 in "S1 toki S2" is in the past
tense and S1 expresses a state, the tense of S1 can be
either past or nonpast|N5-when S1 in "S1 toki S2"
expresses an action, the meaning of the S changes
depending on the tenses of S1 and S2

Front 199

tokoro da(1)
N1

Back 199

phr
N1-tokoro da is a simplified form of tokoro ni aru
"be located in a place (where)" this expression can be
simplified even more

Front 200

tokoro da(2)
N1-5

Back 200

phr
[Vinf] tokoro da/[Vte] {iru/ita} tokoro da/[N] no tokoro
[adj(i) inf nonpast] tokoro/[adj(na)stem] na tokoro
N1-tokoro itself means "place" but it can also mean
state, or time when it is used with a modifying verb,adj
or noun|N2-verbs which precede tokoro are either past or
nonpast and either progressive or non-progressive, and
each one of the four verb forms expresses a different
aspect of the action.|N3-when the preceding verb is
nonpast and nonprogressive and the following copula
is in the past tense, the S may mean "s.o or s.t almost
did s.t". when tokoro datta means "almost did s.t" such
adverbs as "mou sukoshi de" "just by a little" and nearly
are often used also.|N4-tokoro can be followed by either
the copula or such prts as o,ni,e,and de|N5-when adjs
or nouns with no precede tokoro, tokoro is usually
followed by a prt rather than the copula

Front 201

~to shite

Back 201

prt
[N] to shite

Front 202

~to shite wa
RE1

Back 202

prt
[N] to shite wa
RE1-ni shite wa is also used to present a standard for
comparisions. however, it is diffrent from to shite wa in
terms of the speaker's presupposition. that is S's with
X ni shite wa presuppose that a person or the thing
referred to by the subject is X, whereas those with
X to shite wa have no such presupposition. ni shite wa
can be used when the speaker doesnt know exactly
what he is comparing with the standard he presents
but to shite wa cannot be used in such situations

Front 203

tsumori
N1-3

Back 203

n
[Vinf] tsumori da/[adj(i) inf nonpast] tsumori da
[adj(na)stem] na tsumori da/[N] no tsumori da
N1-tsumori is a dependent noun and must be preceded
by a modifier. the minimum modifier is sono
N2-the subject of a statement containing tsumori da
must be the first person or s.o with whom the speaker
empathizes. in a question, however, the subject must be
the second person or s.o with whom the hearer
empathizes|N3-tsumori da can be negated in two ways.
the verb/adj in front of tsumori can be negated or tsumori
can be negated as tsumori wa nai(not tsumor de wa nai)
the diffrence between the two versions is that the second
version implies stronger negation than the first

Front 204

-tte(1)
N1-3

Back 204

prt
[N]tte/[V/adj(i)][inf nonpast] tte
N1-you should not use adj(na)stem tte, unless it is an
adj(na) that can be used also as a noun as in kenkou
"health/healthy"|N2-you should not confuse -tte1 with
tte2 of hearsay|N3-tte tends to co-occur with the S-final
ne or yo

Front 205

-tte(2)
N1-3

Back 205

prt
N1-quote+tte is a colloquial version of quote+to3. any
quotation which can precede to3 can precede tte
N2-when there is a human topic in the -tte construction
the S is ambiguous as to whose quotation it is. the person
who is quoting can be either the topic person or "they".
but if a reporting verb iu is used after -tte, then the S
means "the person(topic) says that ~"|N3-when tte is
not followed by a verb, the understood verb is iu, the
other verbs cannot be deleted after tte