August Biological Science

Front 1

(T/F) Axons have a nucleus, ER, golgi apparatus, or ribosomes.

Back 1

FALSE; axons don't have a nucleus, ER, golgi apparatus, or ribosomes.

Front 2

Why do axons have an abundant amnt of microtubules and actin filaments?

Back 2

Because these are essential for axonal transport (that is microtubules) and cytoskeletal structure (that is actin filaments), respectively.

Front 3

Microtubules are essential for axonal transport.

Back 3

TRUE

Front 4

Microfilaments are essential for cytoskeletal structure.

Back 4

TRUE

Front 5

A portion of eukaryotic mRNA has the following base sequence: 5'-ACAUCUAUGCCACGA-3'. What could result from a mutation that changes the underlying base to A?

Back 5

Since we don't know the reading frame, its possible that the AUG sequence in the original length of mRNA served as a start signal, in which case changing the U would result in failure to initiate translation. Without knowing the reading frame, we cannot rule out the fact that this change will reuslt in a stop codon (UAA).

Front 6

What are the start codons?

Back 6

AUG

Front 7

What are the stop codons?

Back 7

UAA, UGA, UAG

Front 8

Aproteins destined to be secreted into the RER lumen have a specila sequence of AA's aat their _____ terminus. This sequence is recognized by what?

Back 8

Amino; this sequence is recognized by the SRP which binds to a receptor on the RER, attaching ribosome and the nascent polypeptide to the ER membrane.

Front 9

How are the phosphate for translation allotted?

Back 9

1P for intiaiton; 2P for each AA to be added to the chain; and 2P required for chain formation (#1 to carry the AA to the ribsoome; #2 to translocated)

Front 10

For 100aa chain, how many ATP total?

Back 10

1+2(100)+2(99)=399 ATP total

Front 11

70s ribosomes: what is the makup?

Back 11

30S (light unit) and 50S (heavy unit)

Front 12

bacillus

Back 12

rod-shaped

Front 13

Metaphase requires what?

Back 13

metaphase requires microtubules for sister chromatid separation.

Front 14

Amoeboid motility and contractile processes require what?

Back 14

amoeboid motility and contractile processes (such as cytokinesis) requires microfilaments

Front 15

TIP: When see "recombination", make sure they are referring to meiosis.

Back 15

#

Front 16

Microtubules are required for what?

Back 16

intraceullular organelle movement and spindle formation;

Front 17

Microfilaments are requered for what?

Back 17

amoboid movement

Front 18

What are the characteristics of eukaryotic flagella?

Back 18

they are cytoplasmic extensions w/ a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules; ATP hydrolysis is required for their movement; and similar in structure to cilia

Front 19

Prokaryotes and eukaryotic flagella are different from each other in that…

Back 19

prokaryotic flagellar are formed from chians of protein called flagellin, and are attached to the cell surface (as opposed to being cytoplasmic extensions)

Front 20

When does coevolution occur?

Back 20

when the characteristics of one species influences the evolution of another species; ie. One species makes a virus less virulent.

Front 21

Competition results when organisms from the same species overlap in their utilization of insufficient resources.

Back 21

TRUE

Front 22

(T/F) Better surviving a diseases is not "outcompeting" b/c no resources are being competed over.

Back 22

TRUE

Front 23

(T/F) Membrane's impermeability to Na is essential to the RMP.

Back 23

TRUE

Front 24

(T/F) Aps begin at the dendritic spine.

Back 24

FALSE; Aps begin at the axon hillock… Dendritic spine is where the NT has its effect.

Front 25

What are the solutes that are responsible for the osmotic gradients in the renal medulla?

Back 25

urea and NaCl

Front 26

If H+ is not secreted into urine such as when no carbonic anhyydrase is present, then what happens?

Back 26

It will remain in the plasma, thereby decreasing plasma pH at the same time that uring pH increases.

Front 27

If H+ is not secreted into urine such as when no carbonic anhyydrase is present, then what happens?

Back 27

~90% of serum fluid to enter Bowman's capsuile; Filtrate is composed of water and small solutes such as salts, nitrogenous wastes, glucose, aa's, and …

Front 28

What is the proximal tubule permeable to?

Back 28

salts, urea, and water

Front 29

Proximal tubule: substances actively transporte out of the tubule or reabsorbed include glucose, AA's, and Na+; H2O passsively follows.

Back 29

True.

Front 30

What is the length of the myosin which doesn't change during muscle contraction.

Back 30

The A band.

Front 31

What is that band that is the region of actin that doesn't overlap with myosin.

Back 31

I band; during contraction, this distance decreases as the filaments slide past each other.

Front 32

What is the sarcomere length defined by.

Back 32

The distance btw z lines; it is the shortening of this unit which determines muscle contraction.

Front 33

What must bund to the ribosome before translation can occur?

Back 33

tRNA

Front 34

During oxidative phosphorylation, the final acceptor electron acceptor from ____ is ___.

Back 34

During oxidative phosphorylation, the final acceptor electron acceptor from NADH is O2.

Front 35

During fermentation, what is the final acceptor?

Back 35

an organic compound

Front 36

CO2 dissolved in plasma decreased the pH through conversion to what?

Back 36

carbonic acid.

Front 37

# During oxidative phosphorylation, the final acceptor electron accepotr from NADH is O2.

Back 37

#

Front 38

# During fermentation the final acceptor is an organic compound

Back 38

#

Front 39

# Carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma decreased the pH through conversion to carbonic acid.

Back 39

#

Front 40

# Plasmids are extrachromosomal circular DNA molecules.

Back 40

#

Front 41

# Organelles are membrane bound cellular components present only in eukaryotes.

Back 41

#

Front 42

# dsDNA is not produced thru transcript and translation, its done so thru replication.

Back 42

#

Front 43

# Nuclear membrane disappears in metaphase, after the visible condensation of the chromosomes in prophase.

Back 43

#

Front 44

# Erythrocytes must be continually replenished by stem cells in the marrow.

Back 44

#

Front 45

# Mitosis can occur in haploid cells unlike meiosis, which can occur in diploid cells.

Back 45

#

Front 46

# Replication of organelle DNA occurs in G1, nculear DNA is S phase.

Back 46

#

Front 47

# Many enzymes are thermolabile, that is, they don't function at higher temperatures even within the normal physiological range.

Back 47

#

Front 48

# Antibodies may coat a foreign particle so that it is taken up by phagocyte cells. Antibodies serve as markers causing phagocytic cells to engluf and desotry foreign particles or cells.

Back 48

#

Front 49

# The iris adapt to light in a fraction of a second (very quick!)

Back 49

#

Front 50

# Rods are resposnbiel for dark vision (inceased sensitivity) and black/white vision.

Back 50

#

Front 51

# Cones are resposnible for visual acuity and color vision.

Back 51

#

Front 52

# Photoreceptor has open Na channels in resting state.

Back 52

#

Front 53

# Transudction of lifht energy occurs in the retina where photoreceptors respond to incident light by decreasing their steady release of NT.

Back 53

#

Front 54

# hematocrit = red blood cells

Back 54

#

Front 55

# as velocity decrease, viscosity increases

Back 55

#

Front 56

# In the disorder diabetes inspidus, ADH secretion is secerely deficient and the result is decreased solute concentration in the urine. ADH causes water to be reabsorbed from the urine. Without it, the urine is excessively dilute.

Back 56

#

Front 57

# What makes ATP a particularly good energy carrier is that it has an intermediate trans for potential. This allows high energy phosphate carriers like creatine phosphate to drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP + Pi by transferring their phosphate group to ADP.

Back 57

#

Front 58

# ATP's hydrolysis doesn't release the largest amnt of energy of any molecule in the body. Creatine phosphate's fere energy of hydrolysis is -10.3kcal/mol compared to ATP's 7.3kcal/mol.

Back 58

#

Front 59

# Creatine phosphate is a high energy buffer b/c it maintains the level of available high energy phosphates. During intense muscule exertions, creatine phosphate replenishes the muscle's ATP by transfering its phosphat grp to ADP.

Back 59

#

Front 60

# In order to spontaneous transfer its phosphate grp to ADP, creatine phosphate's free energy of hydrolysis must be more negative than ATPs.

Back 60

#

Front 61

# Ca2+ binds to troponin which causes a conformation change that allows tropomyosin to shifts its position, exposing the myosin binding site on actin.

Back 61

#

Front 62

# Mg2+ is required for myosin's ATPase function to be effective.

Back 62

#

Front 63

# ATP binds to the myosin heads.

Back 63

#

Front 64

# Women treated over a long period of time with relatively large doses of estrogen don't ovulate. This is probably due to inhibition of gonadotropin secretion by estrogen.

Back 64

#

Front 65

# Estrogen acts at the hypothalamic and pituitary leads to inhibit the secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus & FSH and LH from anterior pitutitary. This is a class negative feedback loop.

Back 65

#

Front 66

# The preovulatory LH surge is essential for ovulation.

Back 66

#

Front 67

# Preovulatory decline of FSH is due to the increasing oncentration of estradiol. Estrogen inhibits FSH by negative feedback.

Back 67

#

Front 68

# In the absence of pregnancy, menstruation normally occurs. This is due to the decline of progesterone and estradiol, 2 hormones required for maintenance of endometrium.

Back 68

#

Front 69

# Progesterone and estradiol are two hormones that are required for maintenance of endometrium.

Back 69

#

Front 70

# Ovarrian follicle produces estradiol.

Back 70

#

Front 71

# Corpus luteum and placenta produce both estrdiol and progesterone.

Back 71

#

Front 72

# Adrenal medula produces catecholamines (epi and norepi).

Back 72

#

Front 73

# FSH and LH are prduced in anterior pituitary.

Back 73

#

Front 74

# {psteropr [ituitary: ADH and oxytocin

Back 74

#

Front 75

# Pineal gland: melatonin (sleep cycles)

Back 75

#

Front 76

What does Lac+ signify?

Back 76

Denotes a bacterium which can metabolize lactose normally; it can grow in a medium which contains lactose as its primary energy source.

Front 77

# Auxotrophs have a mutation that prevent them from growing on minimal media (requires an auxiliary trophic substance… trophic means relating to nutrition).

Back 77

#

Front 78

# Prototrophs: wildtype; can grow on minimal media ("proto" means 1st in time).

Back 78

#

Front 79

# hetertrophs: organism which grows using energy derived from another organism's metabolism.

Back 79

#

Front 80

# plants are generaly autotrophs while animals are hetertrophs; bacteria can be either.

Back 80

#

Front 81

# Chemotrophs: derive their energy from an inorganic carbon source (a chemical source)

Back 81

#

Front 82

# Penicillin blocks the last step in bacterial peptidoglycan cell wall function, disrupting cell wall formation.

Back 82

#

Front 83

# Tumor intiators cause mutations, or changes in the DNA sequence of a cell.

Back 83

#

Front 84

# Cancer cell may or may not lose their ability to hormonal control (ie: breast cancer which is treated with hormonal therapy).

Back 84

#

Front 85

# Only mutations in DNA cause permanent change that can be passed down to daughter cells.

Back 85

#

Front 86

# Middle ear is composed of the ossicles.

Back 86

#

Front 87

# Inner ear is the site where the sound wave becomes a traveling wave.

Back 87

#

Front 88

# Hair cells transduce the impulse in the traveling wave into a nerve impulse.

Back 88

#

Front 89

# Low frequencies cause the most vibration at the apical end, farthest form the eardrum.

Back 89

#

Front 90

# Hair cells in different locations along the basilar membrane resord sound of different frequencies.

Back 90

#

Front 91

# Damage to the tympanic membrane would cause conduction deafness and hearing loss would be uniform over all frequencies.

Back 91

#

Front 92

# Process of translating a sound wave to a nerve imulse: 1) movememnt of the auditory ossicles (which are in the iddle ear); 2) Pressure changes of the inner ear caused by ossicle movement; 3) displacement of the basilar membrane caused by pressure changes of the innear ear; 4) movement of hair cells that are attached to the basilar membrane.

Back 92

#

Front 93

# Cerebral cortex is composed of nerve cell bodies, and appears grey. Proccesses higher learning such as speech, sound, sight, learning, etc… and is the seat of consciousness.

Back 93

#

Front 94

# Cerebellum: site of coordination of movement and balance

Back 94

#

Front 95

# Hypothalamus: site of regulation of homeostasis.

Back 95

#

Front 96

# Cerebral white matter is composed of myelinated axons (it is the lipid rich myelin which makes it white). Not considered processesing center.

Back 96

#

Front 97

# Cerebral white matter is area of complex intertwingin pathways leading from one processing center to another (ie. From cerebellum to cortex).

Back 97

#

Front 98

# Myelin, which consists of Schwann cell membranes, prevents an AP from occuring within a segment of an axon. As a result, the AP must leap from one node of Ranvier to the next (no myelin at the nodes; depol can occur at nodes)

Back 98

#

Front 99

# Can't use Nernst equation for RMP it blocks K channels b/c Na/K ATPase plays large factor.

Back 99

#

Front 100

# Lymphastic system has no role in cicurlation of RBCs.

Back 100

#

Front 101

# RBCs don't escape blood vessels b/c they are large and lack the amoeboid motility of white blood cells.

Back 101

#

Front 102

# Lymphastic system: allows for white blood cells to return to blood circulation; maintains protein concentration in the blood by returning leaked proteins from institium to the blood circulation; transports fats from digestive tract in the circulatory system in the form of chylomicrons.

Back 102

#

Front 103

# Bone marrow in the site of synthesis of all cells of the blood stream.

Back 103

#

Front 104

# BP is much higher than interstitial fluid volume, and the concentration of protein is also higher in the blood => proteins ltend to leak out of blood vessels and cannot diffuse back in.

Back 104

#

Front 105

# In the case of liver diseases or protein deficiency, the concentration of plasma proteins (ie. Albumin_ falls and edema results (think about this!)

Back 105

#

Front 106

# Thoracic duct drains the entire left side of the body.

Back 106

#

Front 107

# Thoracic duct drains the entire left side of the body.

Back 107

#

Front 108

# Lymphatic capillaries are the starting point of lymph return to the blood.

Back 108

#

Front 109

# Right thoracic duct drains only the right shoulder area and right side of the heat.

Back 109

#

Front 110

# Lymphatic capillaries are more permeable. They are meant to uptake proteins, whereas blood capillaries were designed to retain proteins.

Back 110

#

Front 111

# Lympho nodes are the pace where antigen sampling and the early stages of the immune response occur.

Back 111

#

Front 112

# Arg-: lacks enzymes to synthesize argineine; Lac-: dindicates a bacterium which can't grow in a media which contains lactose, usu b/c it lacks the enzyme lactase.

Back 112

#

Front 113

# thiol: -SH

Back 113

#

Front 114

# acetylene is when C is triple bonded to another C

Back 114

#

Front 115

# NH4+ is electrophilic b/c its positively charged.

Back 115

#

Front 116

# n-Hexan & 2-methyl pentane are isomer: small magnitude of deltaH_carb of 2methylpentane is consistent with a higher degree of branching.

Back 116

#

Front 117

# dbl bond: carbon atoms are sp^2 hybridized and have 3 equivalent orbitals and a fourth unhybridized p orbiatl.

Back 117

#

Front 118

# The heat of hydrogenation is defined as the amnt of heat released upon addition of H2 across a dbl bond.

Back 118

#

Front 119

# Saponificatoin of the ester occurs with NaOH and isolation of the free acids are achieved using a mineral acid such as HCl.

Back 119

#

Front 120

# Absorption at 1735 cm^-1 is characteristic of an ester group.

Back 120

#

Front 121

# Aldol rxns are fast and occur in either acidic or basic media. Therefore, aldehydes added to dilute acid will undergo aldol condensation forming a hydroxylated aldehyde. (see notes)

Back 121

#

Front 122

# Enantiomers have identical physical properties ecept for the direction in which they rotate plane polarized light => enantiomers would have same pI values.

Back 122

#

Front 123

# Benedict's test for reducing sugars works like this: an oxidized copper reagent is reduced bya surgar's aldehyde or ketone, and the aldehyde or ketone is oxidized in the process. NEGATIVE for carboxylic acids; POSITIVE for aldehydes/ketone.

Back 123

#

Front 124

# Meso cmpds are achiral, even though they have chiral centers; this is b/c of their internal plane of symmetry.

Back 124

#

Front 125

# A meso cmpd must have an even # greater or equal to 2 chiral centers.

Back 125

#

Front 126

# D, L, alpha, beta rae all naturally occuring sugars. Alpha and beta forms are said to be anomers of each other. Refer to configuration of carbon #1, the anomeric carbon when subar is in the turanes or pyranose (ring) form.

Back 126

#

Front 127

# Protonate propanoic acid using acid to allow the sodium salt to be remoced from the solution before spectroscopy.

Back 127

#

Front 128

# Compounds to acids, alcohols aren't acidic enoguh to bind signimficant amount of Na+ compared to acids.

Back 128

#

Front 129

# C=O 1700 cm^-1; C-OH 3000cm^-1

Back 129

#

Front 130

# Larger k means rxn is less reversible.

Back 130

#

Front 131

# Amides: carboxylic acid & amine; more stable than esters.

Back 131

#

Front 132

# Amides are more stable than carboxylic acids => amide bonds don't easily undergo hydrolysis.

Back 132

#

Front 133

# Most biologically active sugars have the D configuration; D config: last chiral carbon has the same configuration as D-glyceraldehyde.

Back 133

#

Front 134

# Few examples of biologically active L sugars (rare): L-galactose: constitutent of some polysaccharide structures; L-arabinase: a pentose is an important part of cells walls and plant glycoproteins.

Back 134

#

Front 135

# If a rxn is not stereospecific, will get two forms of the enantiomer. If the rxn is sterospecific, only one enantiomer will be formed => optically active molecule.

Back 135

#

Front 136

# Phosphofruktokinase catalyzes the comitted step in glycolysis so if it is inhibited, it will in turn inhibit glycolysis.

Back 136

#

Front 137

# A high fructose-6-phosphate concentration will leak to increase phosphofructokinase activity and enhanced glycolysis so there will be more ATP ==> increased ATP/AMP ratio.

Back 137

#

Front 138

# syncytia: immune impaired cells.

Back 138

#

Front 139

What is the net effect of viral glycoproteins expressed on the surface of HIV infected T cells fused with CD4 receptors on healthy cells forming a nonfunctional cell mass (syncytia formation) ?

Back 139

Net result is an effective depltion of T cell activity; therefore the following would support this: the glycoproteins of the virus bind almost irrevsibly to CD4 receptor molecules in vitro.

Front 140

# B cells are antibody producing components of the immune system.

Back 140

#

Front 141

# Immune system refers to a group of nonspecific and specific defense mechanisms mediaetd by specialized cells, such as B cells, T cells, and macrophages that travel through the body via the circulatory system.

Back 141

#

Front 142

# Centrioles: cylindrical strucutres whose role, if any, in animal cell mitosis is unclear to date.

Back 142

#

Front 143

# Lysosomes: respsonsible for the disgtion of various cellular and extracellular metabolites as well as the degradation of unwanted toxins.

Back 143

#

Front 144

# Macrophages: phagocytic monuclear white cells that serve accesosry roles in cellular immunity; they are NOT invovled in antibody production.

Back 144

#

Front 145

# Cis/trans arrangement of substitutents around a dbl bond is known as geometric isomerism, and have different physical properties attributed to a difference in their dipole moments and symemtry.

Back 145

#

Front 146

# HOT BASIC POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: nonterminal alkenes will be oxidatively cleaved to form two molecules of carboxylic acids.

Back 146

#

Front 147

# Diols are created with alkenes treated with cold dilute potassium permanganate.

Back 147

#

Front 148

# Vinylic cation: an intermediate in which the positive charge id adjacent to a double bond.

Back 148

#

Front 149

# Technique that can be used in helping an epidemiologist determine that the infectious agent was bacterial or viral: can hybridize the infection agent w/ radiolabeled probes specific for the genes encoding viral structual proteins; only viral genes will hybridize.

Back 149

#

Front 150

# Bacteria hav ea signle circular chromosome located in a region of the cell known as the nucleoid.

Back 150

#

Front 151

# Prokaryotic ribosomes are structurally different from eukaryotic ribosomes, and this difference is often exploited in the development of effective antibodies.

Back 151

#

Front 152

# To test whether straing were effected by antibiotics, the experimeneter needed to use a medium that the strains could definitely grow on in the absence of antibiotics.

Back 152

#

Front 153

# Calcitonin lowers blood Ca2+ by promoting the incorporation of Ca2+ into bone.

Back 153

#

Front 154

# Parathyrodi hormone (PTH) increases blood ca2+ conc by promoting its removal from bone and its release into the blood stream. It also converts vitamind D3 into its active form, which stimulates the absorption of Ca2+ in the intestines.

Back 154

#

Front 155

# PTH converts vitamind D3 into its active form, which stimulates the absorption of Ca2+ in the intestines.

Back 155

#

Front 156

# Prolactin: hormone; synthesized by anterior pituitary gland; stimulates the secretion of milk from female mammary glands.

Back 156

#

Front 157

# ACTH: secreted by anterior pituitary; stimulates the production of hormones from the adrenal cortex.

Back 157

#

Front 158

# T4 (thyroxin) is a thyroid hormone involved in regulating metabolism.

Back 158

#

Front 159

# Pulmonary arteries deliver the blood to the capillary beds surrounding the alveli, which is where gas exchange occurs: CO2 is traded for O2.

Back 159

#

Front 160

# 3 primary germ layers which arise during the gastrulation stage of embryonic development: endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm.

Back 160

#

Front 161

# Endoderm: innermost layer of cells from which the following strcutres aris: lining of digestive tract, respiratory tract, liver, thyroid, pancreas, bladder.

Back 161

#

Front 162

# Mesoderm: middle layer of cells give rise to skeletal muscle, dermis, bone, blood, gonads, kidneys, circulatory system.

Back 162

#

Front 163

# Ectoderm: gives rise to nail, hair, outer layer of skin, lens of eye, pitutiary gland, lining of mouse and nose, nervous tissue, adrenal medulla.

Back 163

#

Front 164

# Someone with Rh+ is ok with getting Rh+ blood (since body won't make antibodies to it).

Back 164

#

Front 165

# Ca2_ ions bind to troponin causing a conformational change within the sarcomere that causes the tropomyosin strands to shift and expose themyosin binding sites on actin => myosin binds to actin and the sarcomere contracts.

Back 165

#

Front 166

# Permanent actin-myosin crossbridges occur only in the absence of ATP and leads to the development of rigor mortis.

Back 166

#

Front 167

# Exocytosis is not a passive process and so requires ATP =?> release of Ach via exocytosis requires ATP (abundance of mitochondria in the nerve terminal supply the ATP).

Back 167

#

Front 168

# Not all eukaryotic cells contain mitochondria: red blood cells lack mitochondria.

Back 168

#

Front 169

# Neurons are aerobinc cells does require the presence of mitochondria.

Back 169

#

Front 170

# Diffusion is a passive process => ATP is not required.

Back 170

#

Front 171

# If a student's receptors for sensation of "hot" pain had severed, then the student would have felt no pain and his hand would have remained on the hot plate.

Back 171

#

Front 172

# Though the sensation of pain is also conveyed to the sensory cortex via a different pathway, this pathway also begins w/ the stimulation of the hot pain receptors in the skin. So if the receptors were severed , the message would not be sent to the brain by this route.

Back 172

#

Front 173

# Sensation of pain is the result of an impulse being transmitted to the brain's sensory neuron. If one of these pathways were severed at any point, the impulse wouldn't be sent to the brain, and the sensation of pain would not be felt.

Back 173

#

Front 174

# Different in reaction time corresponds to two factors: 1) distance the impulse must travel; 2) # of synapses the impulse must cross

Back 174

#

Front 175

# Withdrawl reflex in response to intense heat by passes the sensory area of the brain synapsing directly in the spiral chord.

Back 175

#

Front 176

# Sensation of pain is transmitted more slowly to the sensory cortex to a morotor neuron.

Back 176

#

Front 177

# Crossed exterior reflex: concomittant extension of the opposite limb.

Back 177

#

Front 178

#Chorination of butane results in formation of 1-chlorobutane and 2-chlorobutane since butane posses two types of hydrogen that can be substituted. (Tertiary is most reactive though so 2 chlorobutane is major product).

Back 178

#

Front 179

# Rxn that occurs thorugh a free radical intermediate will form a racemic mixture b/c (halogen) an add to either side of the molecule.

Back 179

#

Front 180

# Eukaryotic cells contain genes known as protooncognes which normally code for proteins involved in the regulation of growth. If any of these protooncognese become transpformed into an oncogene, then that cell is said to be tumorigenic.

Back 180

#

Front 181

# Tumorigenic cell: one that gives rise to a tumor.

Back 181

#

Front 182

# Tumor cells don't obey rules of normal cell growth and divide indefnitely.

Back 182

#

Front 183

# Second messenger system typically involve G proteins and cyclic AMP.

Back 183

#

Front 184

# Promoter is a region of DNA involved in the binding of RNA polymerase to intiate transcription. Promoter region is located approx 10-35 base pairs before the 1st coding base of the gene. The strength of the rpomoter describes the frequency at which RNA polymerase intiates trasncription and appears to be related to the closeness with which its sequence conform to the ideal consensus sequence.

Front 185

# Strong promoter increases the frequency with whihch RNA polyermase binds to a region and transcribes the gene.

Back 185

#

Front 186

# Immunization with a hormone extract will not cause an infection. Viruses and Bacteria cause infections.

Back 186

#

Front 187

# RIA (radioimmunoassay): technique use for measuirng hormone concentration; as [unlabled hormone] increase in sampe, % of antibody bound radiolableed hormone decreases.

Back 187

#

Front 188

# During typical measurement, FSH stimultes the maturation of an ovarian follicle during a typical menstrual cycle.

Back 188

#

Front 189

# During pregnancy, mesntural cycle is inhibited b/c progesterone which is secreted by corpus luteum during the 1st trimester of pregnancy and secreted by placenta during remainder of pregnancy, inhibits FSH secretion ==> [FSH] very low during preganncy.

Back 189

#

Front 190

# Bohr effect: term used to describe hemoglobulins decrease in O2 affinity at high plasma concentration of CO2 at low pH.

Back 190

#

Front 191

# Amino acid is subjected to electrophoresis @ pH 8.5 and is observed to migrate to the anode. The isoelectric point of the amino acid is less than 8.5. Amino acid is negatively charge (negative on carbonyl group and neurtral NH3); inorder to make it into a switterion, need to protonate NH2 => NH3

Back 191

#

Front 192

# In males, release of LH and FSH is relatively constant b/c they stimulate two continuous processes: 1) testosterone synthesis; 2) spermatogenesis.

Back 192

#

Front 193

# In females, LH & FSH are released in a cyclic fashion. Prior to ovulation, FSH and LH secretion continuously increase.

Back 193

#

Front 194

# FSH: stimulates follicle development.

Back 194

#

Front 195

# LH: stimulates the development of the corpus luteum following ovulation.

Back 195

#

Front 196

# In females, secretion of LH and FSH both drop sharlply following ovulation and doesn't beging to rise again until the onset of the next menstural cycle.

Back 196

#

Front 197

# Cocci: spherical

Back 197

#

Front 198

# Bacilli: rod-like (such as e coli)

Back 198

#

Front 199

# spirochetes or spirilla: helical (least common of three).

Back 199

#

Front 200

# Pancreas synthesizes and secretes the following enzymes: trypsingogen (protein), cymotrypsinogen (protein), carboxy peptidase (protein), amylase (carbohydrates), lipase (fats).

Back 200

#

Front 201

# Small intestine secretes enterokinase, enzyme that converts trypsinogen => trypsin

Back 201

#

Front 202

# Trypsin converts chymotrypsinogen to its active form, chymotrypsin.

Back 202

#

Front 203

# If have pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, distion of lipids will be more effected since lipase is only produced in pancreas.

Back 203

#

Front 204

# If analysis of viral genome is 27% C, 27% A, 23% U, 23% G, this is SINGLE stranded RNA and not DNA.

Back 204

#

Front 205

# ADH aka vasopressin

Back 205

#

Front 206

# Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect changes in the extracellular osmolality, particularly [Na]. When [Na]o increases, one gets increased ADH secretion and increased urge to drink water.

Back 206

#

Front 207

# ADH alters the permeability of renal collecting ducts to water.

Back 207

#

Front 208

# When no ADH present => collecting duct walls are impermeable to water and dilute urine formed.

Back 208

#

Front 209

# Na is excreted regardless of the level of ADH.

Back 209

#

Front 210

# Initially, the filtrate looks very much like plasma. Only the large protein and cells are retained in the blood stream; smaller molecules like glucose and aa's, and all ions, are filtered into the nephron tubule.

Back 210

#

Front 211

# Concentration of glucose is the same in the initial filtrate and plasma (since its filtered into the nephtron tubule).

Back 211

#

Front 212

# Immunologlobulins which are large proteins one retained in the blood, so their concentration in the filtrate=0.

Back 212

#

Front 213

# Na is small ion and is freely filtered so its conc in intial filtrate sis ame as plasma.

Back 213

#

Front 214

# A severe hemorrhage would decrease the volume of the extracellular fluid, but the concentration of the remaining fluid wouldn't change.

Back 214

#

Front 215

# Upon severe blood loss, the sympathetic division of the ANS would cause constriction of the arteries in an effort to maintain blood pressure. Also, due to reduced blood volume, blood flow would be reduced leading to a reduction in filtration and urine output.

Back 215

#

Front 216

# Decreased blood volume => decreases blood flow => decreased filtration rate => urine output

Back 216

#

Front 217

# The reabsorption of glucose is mediated by protein transporters in the proimal tubule of the nephron and doesn't depend on the medullary osmotic gradient.

Back 217

#

Front 218

# Decreased osmolality of medulla => decrease water drawn out of the collecting ducts => decrease concentration of urine.

Back 218

#

Front 219

# If use radiolabeled thymidine, it will only be incorporated if new DNA is synthesized and this will occur only if the cell is going to divide.

Back 219

#

Front 220

# If a cell line doesn't respond in any way to Factor X, either normal or mutant; it is probably cause the cells lack a Factor X receptor.

Back 220

#

Front 221

# If a cell line doesn't respond to a Factor when added, it could be because it lacks a receptor or b/c it is already producing and secreting the factor into its medium and can't increase its response any further (saturation). If it does decrease its rate when mutant factor is added, it implies that it has the factor receptor.

Back 221

#

Front 222

# The best evidence for a causual relationship btw the mutation and cancer is to show that in the presence of the mutation, cancer (unregulated proliferation) occurs whereas in the absence of the mutation there is no cancer.

Back 222

#

Front 223

# p+q=1; p^2+2pq+2^2=1 where p and q are allele frequencies.

Back 223

#

Front 224

# Natural selection can only operate if there is genetic diversity (will not occur if all alleles are homozygous)

Back 224

#

Front 225

# It takes one generation to establish a H-W equilibrium.

Back 225

#

Front 226

# Mutagenizing is likely to create many harmful mutation; never good idea w/ complex organisms.

Back 226

#

Front 227

# If 2 loci differ, it is not enough of a reason to do anything without further analysis b/c variation at two loci out of 1000 is very minimal.

Back 227

#

Front 228

# unchanged steroconfiguration implies that the carbon remained chiral throughout the rxn (therefore it had to have been sp^3 hybridized since there are the only ones that can be chiral).

Back 228

#

Front 229

# An oxidizing agents is 2 or more highly electronegative atoms directly bonded together. IE: HNO3, HClO4, O3 are all strong oxidizing agents; H3PO4 is a weak oxidizing agent.

Back 229

#

Front 230

# During RNA splicing, introns are removed and exons are conencted together.

Back 230

#

Front 231

# Splicing of hnRNA from a single gene can be variable. Alternative splicing can create different versions of a protein within a single cell or different versions of the protein in different cell types.

Back 231

#

Front 232

# Each antibody has two antigen binding sites; can form bridges that effectively tie many antigen molecules together. When antibody is cleaved so antigen binding sites are separated from constant region, no longer can crosslinking occur.

Back 232

#

Front 233

# Insulin functions to reduce blood glucose levels (by allowing cells to take glucose from the blood).

Back 233

#

Front 234

# Glucocorticoids funciton to increase blood glucose by mobilizing glycogen stores and promoting fat catabolism to spare glucose.

Back 234

#

Front 235

# Liver is the primary storage site for glycogen.

Back 235

#

Front 236

# The effect of glucocorticoids is to keep blood glucose elevated during stress conditions.

Back 236

#

Front 237

# If human adults have little x tissue, a genetic defect in the function of this tissue wouldn't have a significant effect.

Back 237

#

Front 238

# All mammals generate heat thru muscle contraction.

Back 238

#

Front 239

# Ach hydrolysis funcitons to reduce the duration of time that Ach spends in the synaptic cleft, not the frequency with which it is released.

Back 239

#

Front 240

# Rapid turnover of Ach is necessary to discriminate btw the end of one impulse and the beginging of another, this discrimination would be impaired if AchE inhibitors are present resulting in a single long stimulation of the muscle.

Back 240

#

Front 241

# Blocking Ach receptors would have no effect on the frequency with which Ach is released.

Back 241

#

Front 242

# Blcking Ach receptors would reduce the depolarization of the end place.

Back 242

#

Front 243

# Ach inhibitor will not affect the frequency in which Ach is released.

Back 243

#

Front 244

# Enzymes/proteins are fairly large and would be too big to fit thru an ion channel.

Back 244

#

Front 245

# When a neuron is stimulated and many Ach vessicles fuse with the membrane to release the NT, the neuron membrane gets a little larger. To return the membrane to its original size,to help recycle NT, and help recreate the vessicles, reuptake of NTs via endocytosis occurs.

Back 245

#

Front 246

# Na t-butoxide is a strong base and will react with the weak acids so the best solvent to use for the formation of t-butyl metyl ester w/ Na butoixide is benzene (inert to the alkoxide).

Back 246

#

Front 247

# For substitution to be favored over elimination, there must be a PRIMARY fragment without beta branching.

Back 247

#

Front 248

# Alkoxides are better nucleophiles than their protonated counterparts.

Back 248

#

Front 249

# When asked what gas if formed, look at the reaction!!!

Back 249

#

Front 250

# Uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation and electron transport is a heat production mechanism in brown fat.

Back 250

#

Front 251

# There are 3 stereoisomers of 2,3 dichlorobutane b/c there is a meso compound.

Back 251

#

Front 252

# Hypothalamic-putuitary portal system is used to deliver hypothalamic releasing and inhibint factors to the anterior pituitary. If this system is disrupted, anterior pituitary wouldn't be properly controled and result in widespread endocrine malfunction.

Back 252

#

Front 253

# Damage to any of the following would hinder the detection of all frequencies: AUDITORY NERVE (nerve would be uanble to send impulses to the braine…) and OSSICLES (unable to transmit sound waves to the inner ear; ossicles make up malleus, incus, and stapes).

Back 253

#

Front 254

# Damage to choclea would effect detection of SPECIFIC frequencies.

Back 254

#

Front 255

# Choclea is a alrge, curled structure in the inner ear, along which the basilar memebrane is stretched.

Back 255

#

Front 256

# Basilar membrane supports the hair cells of the ear (the sound receptors) and vibrates in sound waves. Since one end of the basilar membrane is considerably thicker than theother, maximum vibration of a particular area depends on the freq of the wave stimulating the membrane.

Back 256

#

Front 257

# IR stretch at 3410 cm^-1 indicates the presence of -OH groups.

Back 257

#

Front 258

# After a protein is translated at the RER, the signal sequence that got it there in the first place is removed (by a proteas). The hydrophobic transmembrane domain must remain, or the protein would fall out of the membrane.

Back 258

#

Front 259

# Trypsin can degrade proteins - if not seen on a gel it could be because they were so small and ran faster than the other proteins, and probably ran off the gel.

Back 259

#

Front 260

# Antibodies float around in the bood and in the extracellular fluid, so a portion of the protein that is accessible to host antibodies would be the part that sticks out into the extracellular space.

Back 260

#

Front 261

# Only the extracellular side of a membrane is glycolsylated and that this portion would be most accessible to antibodies.

Back 261

#

Front 262

# One of two things must occur in the experiment to ensue that a certain protein doesn't alter the translation mechanism: 1) no virtal proteins can be present. This can be ensured if all eukaryotic components must come from uninfected cells to ensure that no viral proteins are present; 2) if a viral protein is present, it must be known that it doesn't affect normal cellular function in any way.

Back 262

#

Front 263

# Blastocyst: fertilized ovum

Back 263

#

Front 264

# Corpus luteum: remainder of the follicle left in the ovary after ovulation; will regress if no fertilization.

Back 264

#

Front 265

# hcG: keeps corpus luteum from regressing.

Back 265

#

Front 266

# Corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone early in pregnancy. After 6th week of pregnancy, the placenta itself produces sufficient estrogen and progesterone to maintain the endometrium. Corpus luteum is no longer necessary then.

Back 266

#

Front 267

# The corpus luteum is formed in the presence of LH.

Back 267

#

Front 268

# Purpose of hcG is to act as substitute for LH (since LH levels fall after ovulatoin).

Back 268

#

Front 269

# During pregnancy, the levels of estrogen and progesterone must be constant and fairly elevated to maintain/increase uterine lining.

Back 269

#

Front 270

# The blastocyst implants in the uterine lining (endometrum).

Back 270

#

Front 271

# Once the placenta is mature (months 4-9), it secretes estrogen and progesterone.

Back 271

#

Front 272

# Trophoblast is the early precurors (m,onths 0-3) of the placenta. It secretes hcG which acts in a manner similar to LH to maintain the corpus luteum.

Back 272

#

Front 273

# Estrogen and progesterone have negative feedback effects on the pituitary hormones (FSH and LH) => FSH and LH are lower in pregnant woman than nonpregnant.

Back 273

#

Front 274

# FSH and LH are expected to be cyclical (increases and decreasing) during nonpregnant times (during normal menstrual cycle), however, they remain consistently low during prenancy.

Back 274

#

Front 275

# Source of HCG is the trophoblast of the implanted embryo.

Back 275

#

Front 276

# Removal of both ovaries would result in the woman being unable to produce estrogen and progesterone during the normal menstrual cycle. Since estrogen and progesterone control the growth of the uterine endometrium, the absence of the hormonres would lead to a lack of uterine function (in other owrds, the endometrium would never be built up and never be shed off).

Back 276

#

Front 277

# Removal of both ovaries wouldn't termiante the pregnancy during 2nd trimester b/c estrogen and progesterone are produced by the placenta.

Back 277

#

Front 278

# The myometrium is made of smooth muscle that enlarges during prengancy and contracts during labor in response to oxytocin.

Back 278

#

Front 279

# The endometrium is closest to the lumen of the uterus.

Back 279

#

Front 280

# Myometrium is found around the endometrium, further from the lumen.

Back 280

#

Front 281

# Doubling the amnt of enzyme doulbes the # of available active sites and so doubles the rate of the rxn.

Back 281

#

Front 282

# Enzymes have no effect on the equilibrium constant (they don't change the equilibrium pt of a rxn, they only speed up the rate at which the rxn reaches equilibrium)

Back 282

#

Front 283

# Separtion of sister chromatids occurs in both meiosis and mitosis: meiosis in anaphase II; and mitoasis in anaphase.

Back 283

#

Front 284

# Pairing of homoagous chromosomes occurs during prophase I of meiosis.

Back 284

#

Front 285

# If need antimarkovnikov additon of water across dbl bond, hydroboration/oxidation would accomplish this.

Back 285

#

Front 286

# Put most bulky groups in the equatorial position!

Back 286

#

Front 287

# Gastric pH is very low and can kill pathogens, hydrolyze food, and activate pepsinogen to pepsin.

Back 287

#

Front 288

# Both PTH and calcitrol increase bone resorption => increase serum [Ca2+]; they can increase serum Ca2+ at different location: PTH acts at kidneys ; Calcitrol acts at intestine.

Back 288

#

Front 289

# PTH has an indirect role in increasing intestinal absorption of Ca2+ by increasing the conversion of calcidiol to calcitrol.

Back 289

#

Front 290

# All hormmones do not carry out effects directly: STEROID HORMONES bind to intracellular receptors; PEPTIDE HORMONES bind to receptors at the cell surface.

Back 290

#

Front 291

# One of the functions of PTH is to increase the conversion of calcitrol, a PTH deficiency would lead to decreased levels of calcitrol.

Back 291

#

Front 292

# Calcitonin acts to decrease serum Ca2+ conc.

Back 292

#

Front 293

# In the absence of vitamin D, intestinal absorption of calcium will be reduced, so plasma ca2+ levels will be lower than normal. This would trigger the release of PTH to increase plasma calcium through other means primarily via bone reabsorption.

Back 293

#

Front 294

# BPs for hydrocarbons: high MW usually translates into higher BP; increased branching decreases BP.

Back 294

#

Front 295

# Testosterone is genetically encoded and required to form the male system. In its absence the female system develops.

Back 295

#

Front 296

# In the absence of testosterone, the female system develops.

Back 296

#

Front 297

# The female system is considered to be the "default" system since no specific rigger is required to intiate its development, only the absence of the triggers for the male systems.

Back 297

#

Front 298

# One of the hormones produced during male development is the Mullerian Inhibiting Factor (MIF) which acts to suppress female devleopment. In the absence of MIF, the female system devlops.

Back 298

#

Front 299

# Mitochondria do not move.

Back 299

#

Front 300

# Mitochondria do not undergo mitosis.

Back 300

#

Front 301

# Prokaryotes reproduce via binary fission.

Back 301

#

Front 302

# Sarcomere is the repeated organization unit and the 1st thing in a muscle cell to actually get shorter.

Back 302

#

Front 303

# Sarcolemma is the plasma membrane ofa muscle cell.

Back 303

#

Front 304

# The SR is the enlarged smooth ER of the msucle cell and acts as a Ca2+ storage unit.

Back 304

#

Front 305

# Stretch of 1751 cm^-1 indicates the presence of a ketone.

Back 305

#

Front 306

# C9H14O indicates 3 sites of unsaturation (3 rings and/or dbl bonds or some combination).

Back 306

#

Front 307

# Organic cmpds are always much more water soluble when they are charged. Amines become protonated and charged upon treatment with acid.

Back 307

#

Front 308

# D's are invisible to proton NMR!

Back 308

#

Front 309

# Esters are readily hydrolyzed by base into a carboxylate salt and an alcohol.

Back 309

#

Front 310

# Aldol condensation converts two molecules into one.

Back 310

#

Front 311

# Ethers are stable in base (not reactive).

Back 311

#

Front 312

# Amine, carboxylic acid, or phenol would not remain in the organic layer after many aqueous extractions.

Back 312

#

Front 313

# 3500 cm^-1 is OH group

Back 313

#

Front 314

# 1700 cm^-1 is ketone C=O.

Back 314

#

Front 315

# A plasma cell is an activated B lymphocyte that is secreting antibodies.

Back 315

#

Front 316

# T lymphocytes destroy abnormal or infected cells, they do not secret antibodies.

Back 316

#

Front 317

# Macrophages are nonspecific phagocytes that consume a variety of things such as dead or injured cells, cellular debris from injury, bacteria, etc.

Back 317

#

Front 318

# RBCs don't secret anything and function only to carry blood gases.

Back 318

#

Front 319

# Calcium is released into muscle cytoplasm during muscle contraction, but this happens after depolarization and the ca2+ ions come from intracellular stores that are not regulated by the Ach receptor.

Back 319

#

Front 320

# Binding of Ach to its receptor produces depolarization of the muscle (Na+).

Back 320

#

Front 321

# Antibodies are constructed from two heavy chains and two light chains, that together form a Y shaped sturcutre.

Back 321

#

Front 322

# Stem of the antibody is the constant region and is formed from the heavy chains only; and is the same for all antibodies of the parituclar class (eg. IgA, etc)

Back 322

#

Front 323

# The arms fo the antibody are the variable antigen recognition site and are formed from both the heavy and light chains. The antigen recognition site must be variable (diff on each antibody made) so that an infinite # of antigens can be recognized.

Back 323

#

Front 324

# Antibodies are made of 4 polypeptide chains: 2 heavy chains, 2 light chains.

Back 324

#

Front 325

# Ach receptor is made by muscle cells.

Back 325

#

Front 326

# A free 3' OH is needed for DNA synthesis to occur.

Back 326

#

Front 327

# RNA nucleotides have a 3'OH and a 2'OH group.

Back 327

#

Front 328

# Nucleotide contains a nitrogen base, a sugar, and a phosphate group.

Back 328

#

Front 329

# Nucleosides: base attached only to sugar (no phosphate credit?)

Back 329

#

Front 330

# Adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine are nitrogenous bases (no attachments).

Back 330

#

Front 331

# Deoxynucleotides found incorporated into a strang of DNA include dTMP, dGMP, dCMP, dAMP. The buildling blocks (dTTP, dGTP, dCTP, dATP) are added to the chain by removing 2 of the phospahte groups.

Back 331

#

Front 332

# NAM and NAG units are linked by beta(1-4) glycosidic bonds.

Back 332

#

Front 333

# Prosthetic groups are not part of the AA sequence of proteins, but are nonprotein components of enzymes which are required for enzyme activity.

Back 333

#

Front 334

# dsDNA is produced through transcription and translation if original w/ signale stranded.

Back 334

#

Front 335

# Pregenome

Back 335

#

Front 336

# If the disease is said to be "rare", you should assume an individual doesn't carry the gene unless proven otherwise.

Back 336

#

Front 337

# Lymphatic capillaries are the start point of lymph return to the blood.

Back 337

#

Front 338

# Right lymphatic duct drains only the right shoulder area and the right side of the head.

Back 338

#

Front 339

# Lymphatic capillaries differ from blood capillaries in that they are more permeable to proteins.

Back 339

#

Front 340

# The thoracic duct drains the entire left side of the body.

Back 340

#

Front 341

# The lymphatic system is capable of returning white blood cells to the circulatory system; maintaining protein concentration in the blood; and tranpsporting fats from digestive tract to the circulatory system.

Back 341

#

Front 342

# Lymphatic system has no role in circulation of red blood cells - they don't escape blood vessels b/c they are large and lack the amoeboid motlity of white blood cells.

Back 342

#

Front 343

# Blood pressure is much higher than interstitial fluid pressure & conc protein is much higher in blood => proteins that leak out of vessels can't diffuse back in.

Back 343

#

Front 344

# In the disorder diabetes insipidus, ADH secretion is severely deficient b/c of decreased solute concentration in the urine. ADH causes H2O to be reabsorbed from urine. Without it, the urine is excessively dilute.

Back 344

#

Front 345

# ADH stiulates the synthesis of a tubular protein which acts as a channel, permitting H2O to cross cell membrane.

Back 345

#

Front 346

# Aldosterone stimulates synthesis of a basolateral Na/K ATPase which pumps Na out of urine and K+ into the urine.

Back 346

#

Front 347

# The proximal tubule doesn't play a role in regulatory plasma osmolarity. It functions to reclaim useful molecules such as glucose from the filtrate.

Back 347

#

Front 348

# The proximal tubule can absorb essentially all the glucose from the glomerular filtrate of a healthy person. To do so, concentration gradients must be overcome.

Back 348

#

Front 349

# Calcium binds to troponin which causes a conformational change that allows tropomyosin to shifts its position exposing the myosin binding site on actin.

Back 349

#

Front 350

# Creatine phosphate is a high energy buffer b/c it maintains the level of available high energy phosphates. During intense muscular exertion, creatine phospahte replenishes the muscle's ATP by transfering its phospahte gorupto ADP (negative delta(G) rxn)

Back 350

#

Front 351

# What makes ATP a particularly good energy carier is that it has an intermediate transfer potential. This allows higher energy phosphate carriers like creatine phosphate to drive the synthesis of ATP from aDP + Pi by transfering their phosphate group to ADP.

Back 351

#

Front 352

# Shivering is an asynchronous contraction of muscle fibers and the primary mechanisms for thermogenesis in adult humans. In fants and many animals utilize nonshivering thermogenesis, whereby heat is produced by increased metabolism, as in the "burning" of brown adipose tissue.

Back 352

#

Front 353

# Shivering is the contraction os skeletal muscle which are part of the somatic NOT autonomic nervous system.

Back 353

#

Front 354

# Pilerection and constriction of cutaneous vessels is a sympathetic autonomic response to conserve heat. PILOERECTION maintains insulatory layer of air; CONSTRICTION prevents loss by convection.

Back 354

#

Front 355

# Estrogen acts at the hypothalamic and pituitary levels to inhibit the secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus, and FSH and LH from anterior pituitary. This is a classic negative feedback loop.

Back 355

#

Front 356

# Estrogen inhibits LH and FSH secretion.

Back 356

#

Front 357

# Preovulatory LH surge is essential for ovulatoin.

Back 357

#

Front 358

# Progesterone is responsible for the change in the endometrium that result in the secretory phase, names an increase in vascularizaiton and the storage of lipids and glycogen,.

Back 358

#

Front 359

# Estrogen is responsible for the proliferative phase of the endometrial cycle, and is also necessary for the secretory phase, along with progesterone.

Back 359

#

Front 360

# FSH, LH, and hCG act on the ovaries, not the endometrium.

Back 360

#

Front 361

# Ovarian follicle produces estradiol but not progesterone.

Back 361

#

Front 362

# The corpus luteum and the placenta are the only 2 structure that produces estradiol and progesterone.

Back 362

#

Front 363

# The adrenal medulla produces catecholamien (epi and norepi)

Back 363

#

Front 364

# If >1 individual in family afflected with diseases, disease may be inherited.;

Back 364

#

Front 365

# Characteristics of dominant pedigree: 1) every affected individual has atleast one affected parents; 2) affected individuals who mate with unaffected individuals have a 50% change of transmitting the trait to each fhild; 3) two affected children may have unaffected children.

Back 365

#

Front 366

# Characteristics of recessive pedigrees: 1) an individual who is affected may have parents who are not affected; 2) all the children of 2 affected individuals are affected; 3) In pedgrees involveing RARE TRAITS, the unaffected parents of an affected individual may be related to each other.

Back 366

#

Front 367

# NADP+ contains ribose, a pentose

Back 367

#

Front 368

# To split a protein into smaller pieces, protease and chemical regaents act to hydrolyze the peptide bond reversing the biosynthetic process.

Back 368

#

Front 369

# 750 bp => 250 amino acid (remember conversion)

Back 369

#

Front 370

# Bacterophage must puncture the bacterial cell wall, while animal virsues can be internalized into animal cells (since they don't have a cell wall).

Back 370

#

Front 371

# Disease is not caused by the few bacteria intially contracted by the host, but by many that proliferate during the infection.

Back 371

#

Front 372

# Mechanism by which glucose is absorbed from the intestinal lumen is by cotransport with sodium. The more glucose that is present in the lumen, the more Na that will be reabsorbed.

Back 372

#

Front 373

# The oxygen in the straight chain version of glcuose is a nucleophile, it attacks the carbon atom of the aldehyde to fomr the cyclic form of glucose.

Back 373

#

Front 374

# Alpha anomer which has the anomeric hydroxyl grp in the axial position predomintes at 40 deg C b/c the beta anomer is destabilized by the interaction of the lonepair electrons on the ring oxygen and on the C-1 hydroxyl oxygen.

Back 374

#

Front 375

# If mutation is responsible, then this will result in a protein with an altered amino acid sequence, or else the mutation would have no effect.

Back 375

#

Front 376

# Transformation: rpocess in which naked DNA , not a virus, is taken into a cell and changes the genetic characteristics of that cell.

Back 376

#

Front 377

# Transduction ismediated bya cirus.

Back 377

#

Front 378

# Conjugation involved direct transfer of DNA btw bacteria.

Back 378

#

Front 379

# Sexual reproeduction DOES NOT apply to bacteria.

Back 379

#

Front 380

# The acrosomal vessicle is a membrane bound vessicle that fuses with another membrane, the plasma membrane to release its contents.

Back 380

#

Front 381

# Phagocytosis: uptake mechanism.

Back 381

#

Front 382

# Absorption of nutrients is mediated by proteins in membrane.

Back 382

#

Front 383

# Steroids passively diffuse thru membranes.

Back 383

#

Front 384

# Following fusion of the acrosomal vesicle, Ca2+ and Na+ enter the sperm while K+ and H+ (protons) exit the sperm. Decreases in H+ conc allows actin to polymerase and the acrosomal process to extend.

Back 384

#

Front 385

# In humans, the fusion of the plasma membrane of a sperm and an ovum is followed by release of the 2nd polar body from the fertilized ovum. Human ova do not complete the 2nd meiotic cell division, including formation of the 2nd polar body until after fertilization.

Back 385

#

Front 386

# Fertilization => 2nd meiotic cell division =>< releaes of 2nd polar body => 1st cell division of the zygote => implantation happens a few days later => gastrulation occurs at a stage many cell divison after the 1st cell division.

Back 386

#

Front 387

# Zona pellucida: rpotective acellular layer located just outside the plasma membrane of the human ova.

Back 387

#

Front 388

# Glycolysis will occur under aerobic conditions, in which case the pyruvase will go onto enter the Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA and under anaerobic conditions (fermentation reduces pyruvate to alcohol and lactase).

Back 388

#

Front 389

# The atria contract during diastole.

Back 389

#

Front 390

# During systole, when the ventricles contarct, blood is forced into the aorta and the pulmonary artery.

Back 390

#

Front 391

# Atrial contraction (diastole) serves to completely fill the ventricles b4 systole begins.

Back 391

#

Front 392

# If H-W is maintained, then there can be no changes in the allele frequencies in the gene pool of a populaiton and no evolution which would not allow speciation.

Back 392

#

Front 393

# Catalyst: not sonsumer in the rxn but increaes the rxn rate.

Back 393

#

Front 394

# Acetic acid is the main ingredient in vinegar.

Back 394

#

Front 395

# Carboxylic acid protons are more acidic than phenol groups b/c the resonance structures for the carboxylic ion are better than the resonance sturcture for the phenoxide ion (think don't want to break aromaticity!)

Back 395

#

Front 396

# Water in air can react with ester to convert it into a carboxylic acid.

Back 396

#

Front 397

# If the pH of the titrate solution is not given, the ppKa cannot be determined from the information given.

Back 397

#

Front 398

# If 2 cmpds have different pKas, then back titration will work in distinguishing the two.

Back 398

#

Front 399

# Carboxylic acid protons are more acidic than phenol protons b/c the resonance structure for the carboxylate ion are better than the resonance structure for the phenoxide ion.

Back 399

#

Front 400

# In grave's diseases, the thyroid stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) contain an active site that can mimic the active site of TSH to stimulate thyroid hormone rpoduction. One would expect TSI to cause an increase in thyroid gland size b/c of the trophic effect of TSH. If TSI mimics TSH, then it would produce the same repsonse: enlargment of teh thyroid gland. It is true that TSI would compete with TSH w/ binding, but TSI also stimulates thyoroid production indicating that it would have the same effect on thyroid size and TSH, and increase the size of the thyroid gland.

Back 400

#

Front 401

# Thyroid hormone causes feedback inhibition of TRH and GSH secretion.

Back 401

#

Front 402

# Tyroid hormone receptor is responsible for hormone signaling, including feedback inhibition by thyroid hormone.

Back 402

#

Front 403

# If thyorid hormone receptor is defective, this will prevent feedback inhibition causing TRH and TSH to become elecated => thyroid size increases.

Back 403

#

Front 404

# Iodine is require for hormone production, so in the absence of suffiient iodine, TH decreases => feedback inhibition will not occur => TSH and TRH will increase.

Back 404

#

Front 405

# In a normal individual, high levels of thyroid hormone would suppress the release of TRH by the hypothalamas and TSH by the anterior pituitary. Injection of even more thyroid hormone should suppress the release of TRH and TSH even further. I

Back 405

#

Front 406

# In goiter disease, ectopic tumors don't respond to normal feedback disease so injection of TH would reduce level of TSH in the system. The tumor only secretes TSH so TRH levels should respond normally to additional thyroid hormone, that is they should go down due to negative feedback.

Back 406

#

Front 407

# In the retroviral life cycle: 1) virus 1st reverse transcribed into DNA; 2) DNA integrates into host cell genome; 3) Viral genes are transcripted and translated (doesn't occur until viral genoem integrates into host cell genome; 4) new viral particles assubmeled.

Back 407

#

Front 408

# Isolated virus doesn't ahvea ny biological activity in the absence of a host cell.

Back 408

#

Front 409

# By blocking a repressor of DNA replication, an oncogene would sitmulate the cell to enter S phase and progress more rapidly through the cell cycle.

Back 409

#

Front 410

# There is no reason to believe that increased transcription of viral genes will increase the rate of cell division.

Back 410

#

Front 411

# Oncogenes are altered version of genes that are normally found in cells but which in this case have entered the viral geneome; The cell should contain two copies of a gene related to the oncogonee alhtough not identical.

Back 411

#

Front 412

# Conservation at the molecular level (iue. Both spirilla and flagella move by forming dynein cross bidges btw microtuble sturcutres ) is a more convincing support than conservation of structure at the gross functional level (ie. Some spirilla have flagella like components that enable them to move in watery environments).

Back 412

#

Front 413

# Both spirilla (bacteria) and eukaryotic flagella move byforming dynein cross bridges btw microtubule structures.

Back 413

#

Front 414

# Mitochondria do not have flagella.

Back 414

#

Front 415

# Mitochondria pump protons out of the inner membrane into the cytoplasm. The protons are not confiend to the intermembrane space since the outer membrane is very porous to ions and small ions.

Back 415

#

Front 416

# Nuclear envelope is porous to portein flow thru its many larges pores.

Back 416

#

Front 417

# Anything that strenghtens the endosymbiolotic theory is one that ltends to make the relationship btw mitochondria and the nuclear genome more distinct tends to favor the idea, as well as anything that places the mitochondria closer to modern bacteria.

Back 417

#

Front 418

# A poison that affects both prokaryotes andmitochondria but not the rest of the eukaryotic cell would palce mitochondria closer to prokaryotes, than eukaryote; sypporting the endosymbiotic theory.

Back 418

#

Front 419

# Increase overlap btgw actin and myosin cuses decrease in sarcomere length.

Back 419

#

Front 420

# Valine is hydrophib and would prob be found on the interior of a teriary structure of a globular enzyme.

Back 420

#

Front 421

# CO2: has 2 groups bonded to it and has no lone pairs => CO2 must be linear olecule and the carbon atom must be sp hybridized.

Back 421

#

Front 422

# The strong dipole moment of the C=O dbl bond is what gives acetaldehyde its strong IR absorbance.

Back 422

#

Front 423

# The final acceptor is oxygen which is reduced to form water.

Back 423

#

Front 424

# Electron transport doesn't directly drive atp prdocution. Electron transport pumps protons out of the mitochondria, creating the porton gradient that drives ATP synthesis. pH outside of the inner membrane including the intermembrane space is decreased relative to hte matrix of the mitochondria. There is no direct tnrasnfer of protons to ATP, only the energy of the movement of protons down a gradient drives ATP synthesis.

Back 424

#

Front 425

# FADH2 results in less ATP production compared to ANDH b/c the electron from FADH2 drive the creation of a smaller proton gradient than then electron from NADH. ATP production depends only on the # of portons that cross thru ATP synthase to reentre the matrix. This intern depends on size of the gradient (ie. # of protons pumped across the inner membrane) => increase in proton gradient => greater amount of ATP produced.

Back 425

#

Front 426

# Since the electrons from FADH2 enter the chain after the 1st complex (NADH-Q reductase), FADH2 is ultimately responsible for pumping few portons across the inner membrane than NADH => less ATP produced than nADH.

Back 426

#

Front 427

# High energy electrons flow down hill (energetically) from reduced carriers to more oxidized carriers. The intermeidate molecules are first reduced by the electrons but then oxidized back to their original state by the next member of the chain down the line.

Back 427

#

Front 428

# In the absence of oxygen: forementation can proceed to continue ATP preoduction; neither electron transport nor the Krebs cycle can occur w/ oxygen: CO2 is produced only in Kreb cycle by complex oxidation of glcuose; and water is porduced in electron transport.

Back 428

#

Front 429

# CO2 and H2O are not products of the oxidation of glucose in the absence of oxygen. H2O is produced only in electron transport. CO2 is produced in Krebs cycle. Without oxygen, electron transport and kreb cycle don't occur.

Back 429

#

Front 430

# Dinitrophenol is a drug that allows protons to freely cross the inner mitochondria.

Back 430

#

Front 431

# Fetal blood and maternal blood don't mix so the only way substances can cross the placental barrier is if they are lipid soluble or if they are actively transported. Amino acids are charged and can't cross the placental and fetal capillary membranes. CO2 and O2 are lipid soluble and easily cross the barier.

Back 431

#

Front 432

# Placenta => Umbilical vien (blood vessels that contains the most highly oxygenated blood in the fetus).

Back 432

#

Front 433

# Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta.

Back 433

#

Front 434

# Ductus arteriosus: prurpose is to help shunt blood past the inactive fetal lungs; does carry oxygenated blood in the fetus but closes shortly after birth so that this vessel isn't present in adults.

Back 434

#

Front 435

# At birth, the resistance thru the pulmonary circulation decreases dramatically as the lungs inflate and resistance increases thru the systemic circulation as a reuslt of the loss of blood flow thru the placenta. Increase in systemic resistance => 1) increase in LV pressure; 2) decrease in pulmonary artery, right atria, and RV as result of inflation of the lungs

Back 435

#

Front 436

# If the bromonium ion were not bridged, the positive charge would be found on the atom that doesn't have its octet satisfied.

Back 436

#

Front 437

# R2C=CHR is more reactive than CH2=CH2 b/c alkyl groups are electron donating making the alkene more nucleophilic.

Back 437

#

Front 438

# Bromoethane: exhibit spin-spin coupling in its NMR specturm since it is the only one that contains nonequivalent protons that are on adjacent Carbon atoms.

Back 438

#

Front 439

# 1,2 dibromoethane; 2,2 dimethylpropane; and ethylene allexhibit spin-spin uncoupling b/c exhibit equivalent adjacent carbons.

Back 439

#

Front 440

# The synthesis of mRNA is catalyzed by the enzyme RNA polyermase which moves along the antisense starnd in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the mRNA in the 5' to 3' directon.

Back 440

#

Front 441

# Methionine (Met) is always the 1st codon to be transcribed; and is thereforea lways the 1st a.a. in the peptide chain prior to peptide modification and processing following translation. During processing following translaation, the terminal Met is typically cleaved.

Back 441

#

Front 442

# People living at high altitude tend to have a great vital capacity, a greater amnt of RBCs and hemoglobin, and an increased tissue vascularization tan people living at lower altitute or sea level. All of these adaptations serve to increase the oxygen capacity of the blood, since the atmospheric parital presure of xoygen is much lower at higher altitutes.

Back 442

#

Front 443

# Hemophilia is a sexlinked genetic disease characterized by a deficiency or abnormality of a clotting factor, and would therefore afect plasma proteins.

Back 443

#

Front 444

# People suffering from sicle cell anemia have low RBC count b/c sickled RBCs are very fragile and undergo lysis, thereby decreasing the volume of circulating RBCs.

Back 444

#

Front 445

# Leukemia => increases white blood cells.

Back 445

#

Front 446

# During the production of RBC's, which is known as erythropiesis, the nucleus of the primitive RBC shrivels and eventually disappears.

Back 446

#

Front 447

# A platelet is a fragment of bone marrow cell containing mitochondria, microtubules, vesicles, and granules but NO nucleus.

Back 447

#

Front 448

# Plasma doesn't contain any cells; it consists mostly of idssolved solutes in water but also contains respiratory gases, hormones, plasma proteins, wast eproducts of metabolism, and disolved nutrients.

Back 448

#

Front 449

# Main plasma proteins: albumins, fibrinogen, and globulin.

Back 449

#

Front 450

# Macrophages are large white blood cells filled with lysosoemes that engulf and digest foreign material.

Back 450

#

Front 451

# Leukocytes: white blood cels

Back 451

#

Front 452

# Genetic drift refers to change in the gene pool of a small population due to change such as a freak natural disaster.

Back 452

#

Front 453

# Reproductive isolation refers to the incompatibility of genitalia, which prevents interbreeding, typically among different species.

Back 453

#

Front 454

# If onlyl a couple base pairs are off, it will still bind to a probe b/c mostly all of the bases are still copmlelmentary to the prove.

Back 454

#

Front 455

# Silver nitrate test is used to detect triple bonds at the end of molecules. Cmpds w/ terminal triple bonds produce precipitate.

Back 455

#

Front 456

# Decolorize bromine in carbon tetrachloride => must be unsatruated w/ either dbl or trpl bonds.

Back 456

#

Front 457

# A sstrongly basic solution of potassium permangana te will replace a triple bond with a diketone. If the diketone is then treated with an acidic solution, it will produce two carboxylic acids at the point btw the two keto groups.

Back 457

#

Front 458

# Nondisjunction is dfeined as the failure of homologous chromosomes to properly separate during meiosis I, or the failure of a sister chromatids to separate during meisois II. End result: half of gametes wind up w/ 2 copies of same chromosome and other hal fwind up with no copies of that chromsoome. If one of these gametes fertilizes a normal gamete resulting zygote will either have 3 copies of that chromosome (trisomy) or one copy of that chromosome (monosomy).

Back 458

#

Front 459

# Since nondisjunction results in the movement of an intire intact chromosome, the base sequence of the nondisjunction chromosome remains unchanged.

Back 459

#

Front 460

# Translocation is when a chromosome breaks and the gragment that brekas off joins with a nonhomologous chromosome. New piece of DNA is added to a preexisting chromosome causing a change in the base sequence.

Back 460

#

Front 461

# 1,3 butadiene: CH2=CH-CH=CH2 compared to CH3-CH3 is that the pibonding orbital is delocalized across the single bond; there is more s character in the 1,3 butadiene single bond caused by overlap of sp2 orbitals.

Back 461

#

Front 462

# Pancreas: as endocrin organ secrete hormones (glucagon, insulin, somatostatin); as exocrin gland, secrete enzymes (trypsin, carboxypeptidase, lipase, chymotrypsin; aminopeptidase).

Back 462

#

Front 463

# Aminopeptidase: involved in protein digestion, it hydrolyzes terminal peptie bonds at the amino end. Secreted into small intestine by intestinal glands.

Back 463

#

Front 464

# HOOCCH(OCH3)C4H8CH(OCH3)COOH: the carboxyl grps here have pretty low acidity b/c the methoy groups are electron donating => destabilizes the carboxylate anions.

Back 464

#

Front 465

# HOOCCH(SO3H)COOH: electron withdrawing sulfonate substitutent adjacent to both carbonyl grps => stabilize both carbonyl anions => make both carboxyl hydrogen s highly acidic.

Back 465

#

Front 466

# Fungi have cell walls which are composed of chitin, but they also have nuclei bound by nuclear membranes.

Back 466

#

Front 467

# Epinephrine increases the conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver and muscle tussue => causing a rise in blood glucose and in increase in basal metabolic rate => enhances athletic performance.

Back 467

#

Front 468

# Vasodilation of systemic system allows more blood to flow into the organs and mustl tissue of the body => providing an increased oxygen supply to the athletes muscle.

Back 468

#

Front 469

# Relaxin the bronchi muscle => ,ore air allowed to enter the lungs and thereby increase partial pressure of O2 in blood.

Back 469

#

Front 470

# In the absence of oxygen, glucose is converted into lactic acid and back into glucose and then glycogen in the liver. Lactic acid diffuses out of the muscle cells and into the blood stream and interstitial fluid to liver: lactic acid => glucose => glycogen

Back 470

#

Front 471

# During recovery from strenuous exercise, the fate of the lactic acid formed as a product of the glycogen lactic acid system is converted back into glycogen.

Back 471

#

Front 472

# Lactic acid would NOT enter the glycolytic pathway b/c in the glocolytic pathway, glucose is degraded into pyruvate, which in the absence of O2, pyruvate is converted into lactice acid. Goal of body is to get rid of lactic acid that it produced during exercise, not create more of it.

Back 472

#

Front 473

# Passage states that only extracellular water freezes during hyperglycemia => cytoplasm is intracellular fluid so doesn't freeze; blod plasma dn lymp are extracellular.

Back 473

#

Front 474

# C=O double bond will have a strong sharp band at 1700 cm^-1.

Back 474

#

Front 475

# MP of a mixture is never higher than that of the components of the mixture.

Back 475

#

Front 476

# A compound A that slowly dissolves in refluxing aqueous NaOH to result in the formation of 2 new compounds is constitten tonly with an ester. An ester is hdrolyzed under such conditions to form a carboxylate and an aloxide.

Back 476

#

Front 477

# Bacteria are prokaryotic and don't contain membrane bound organelles like lysosomes.

Back 477

#

Front 478

# Genes for conjugation are carreid on plasmid, and that during cell divison, plasmids may not be equally distributed among daughter cells. So if a bacterium containing genes for sex pilus construction gave rise to a daughter cell lacking these genes, this most prob occured b/c copies of the plasmid containing the genes weren't equally distributed to the new daughter cells.

Back 478

#

Front 479

# Oral cavity contains the salivary glands, which begin chemical digestion w/ the secretion of salivary amylase or ptyalin. Ptyalin/amylase: hydrolyzes starch to maltose.

Back 479

#

Front 480

# Esophagus: simply a conduit through which food bolus passes from pharynx to stomach.

Back 480

#

Front 481

# Peristalsis: controlled by the ANS

Back 481

#

Front 482

# Esophagus has 2 sphincters that prevent movement of food in the wrong direction; lower esophageal sphincter prevents stomach's acidic juices from entering the esophagus.

Back 482

#

Front 483

# Stomach contains numberous glandular cells: parietal cells (secrete HCl); chief cells (secrete pepsin); neuroendocrine cells (secrete gastrin).

Back 483

#

Front 484

# Duodenum has mucosal glands called Brunners glands which secrete mucus to protect the small intestine from the acidity of gastric joices.

Back 484

#

Front 485

# Jejunuum and ileum have crypts of lieberkutin which have mucus secreting glandular cells.

Back 485

#

Front 486

# Interstitial glands secrete aminopeptidase and dipeptidases: enzymes that hydrolyze peptide bonds and enterokinase which converts trypsinogen to trypsin.

Back 486

#

Front 487

# Ribosomes attach to the 5' end of mRNA.

Back 487

#

Front 488

# Formylmethionyl-tRNA is the initiator of protein synthesis in prokaryotes only.

Back 488

#

Front 489

# Paritetal cells release HCl in response to gastrin, acetylcholine, and histamine.

Back 489

#

Front 490

# Histamine stimulates HCl secretion by acting on sepcific histamine receptors on the outside membrane of parietal cells. If the parietal cell's senstiiveity to histamine was decreased, then less acid would be released.

Back 490

#

Front 491

# Common drug for ulcers: histamine receptor blockers.

Back 491

#

Front 492

# Antrum is the portion of the stomach that contains the majority of the parietal cells.

Back 492

#

Front 493

# A common treatment for severe pepticular disease after medical therapy has failed is an antrectomy. Removal of antrum decreases the amnt of acid produced by the stomach and therefore decreases the occurrence of ulcers.

Back 493

#

Front 494

# Pancreas releases negatively charged bicarbonate ion into the duodenum. This neutralizes the incoming acid and protects the duodenal lining.

Back 494

#

Front 495

# Pancreas secretes sodium bicarbonate which combines w/ HCl to form carbonic acid and NaCl. Carbonic acid dissociates into water and CO2; CO2 is absorbed into body fluids and the remaining solution of NaCl is neural.

Back 495

#

Front 496

# Liver synthesizes bile which emulsifies fats; also detoxifies the poisons of cellular metabolism; also, regulates blood glucose concentration.

Back 496

#

Front 497

# Gastric pH must be precisely controlled b/c gastric enzymes are most active at low pH. Gastric enzymes such as pepsin have optimum activity in an environment w/ a pH 2-3; enzymes are proteins; they rely on the appropriate ionic state of their primary amino acid structure for proper fctn.

Back 497

#

Front 498

# When acidic chyme enter s the duodem, it stimulates the release of secretin from intestinal mucosa. Secretin enters the blood stream and acts on the pancreas causing it to secrete large amnts of pancreatic juice w/ a high concentraiton of bicarbonate ion. Secretin is secreted whenever duodenum pH falls belwo 4.5.

Back 498

B/c v is changing to;

Front 499

# Nutrient obsorption occurs in the small intestine.

Back 499

False; it’s the opposite

Front 500

# Large inestine is involved in the absorption of salts and water.

Back 500

False; desnity doesn't depend on viscosity (think of mercury and water)

Front 501

# The most effective way to hydrogenate the dbl bond would be w/ a mixture of hydrogen and platinum.

Back 501

False; fluid can flow in absence of pressure difference; it just can't accelerate since no driving force.

Front 502

# Mass spectroscopy: moelcuarl weight of cmpd

Back 502

No, since there is no driving force.

Front 503

# NMR: carbon skeleton (specifically, it shows how many different nonequivalent hydrogen atoms the cmpd has and how the carbon atom's they're attached to are connected).

Back 503

True.

Front 504

# Infrared: indicates functional grps.

Back 504

T/(pi*r^2);

Front 505

# Hydrostatic pressure differential: net pressure of the blood and the tissue. Since hydrostatic pressure is greater in the blood, fluid moves out of the capillary into the institutaial space.

Back 505

True.

Front 506

# Hydrostatic pressure differential forces fluid out of the capillary.

Back 506

mv^2/L + mg*cos(theta) where at the top of the pendulum, v=0 so tension = mgcos(theta). At the bottom, tension= mv^2/L + mg

Front 507

# Osmottic pressure differential draws fluid into capillary.

Back 507

True.

Front 508

# Osmotic pressure differential remains constant along the length of the capillary b/c the plasma proteins always remain in the bloodstream, maintaining the conc of solutes in the blood at a fairly stable level.

Back 508

The max tension in string during one oscillation is larger than mg b/c at bottom; Tension = mg + mv^2/L

Front 509

# At arteriole end of capillary: hydrostatic pressure difference > osmitic => draw blood out.

Back 509

on top of a mountain, acceleration due to gravity is slightly smaller than it is at sea level since we're further from the center of the earth.

Front 510

# At venous end of capillary: hydrostatic pressu diff < " => draws blood in.

Back 510

B/c the equivalence of inertial mass (the m in F=ma) and gravitational mass (m in Newton's law of gravitation) is responsible for the fact that mass is often missing in certain equations…

Front 511

# Respiratory gases are exchanged btw the blood and the interstitial fluid via passive diffusion. No carrier molecules are required to transport gases across the capillary wall. No carrier molecules are required to transport gases across the capillary wall.

Back 511

Equivalence of inertial mass and gravitational mass. Heavier object feels a larger gravitational force but it also harder to get it going so the larger force is balanced by the larger inertia.

Front 512

# Capillary wall is selectively permeable, allowing only those particles that are soluble in the lipid membrane or those that are small enough to pass thru its pores to pass it => capillary wall is semipermeable.

Back 512

In a pendulum, the centripetal force is always smaller than the tension.

Front 513

# Most proteins dissolved in the blood such as albumin are essentially confined to the lumen of the capillary b/c they are too large to pass thru the pores in the capillary wall. This ensures that the osmolarity of the blood will be higher thus the osmolarity of the tissues which is why the osmotic pressure differential of the blood tends to draw water into the capillary.

Back 513

L and g.

Front 514

# Plasma proteins facilitate fluid exchange by maintaing the osmotic pressure differential, not by binding to fluid molecules.

Back 514

B/c light will be lost at imprecise connections.

Front 515

# Bond angle in cyclohexane is ~109.5 deg so angle straing is minimized.

Back 515

False.

Front 516

# Carbon monoxide is a gas formed by the incomplete combusion of carbon, and it's toxic b/c it readily forms carbon monoxide hemoglobin, COHb. COHb can't bind to O2 b/c hemoglobulin's affinity for CO is 210x greater than its affinity for O2. When CO enters bloodstream and binds Hb, amnt of Hb capable of carrying O2 decreases; hopwever the total concentraiton of Hb in the blood remains unaffected.

Back 516

True.

Front 517

# CO decreases amnt of O2 that is released to tissues causing anemic hypoxia.

Back 517

True.

Front 518

# Anemic hypoxia is condition when artieral partial pressure of O2 remains the same but the amnt of Hb vailable for binding O2 is reduced.

Back 518

True.

Front 519

# Since the arterial pp of O2 remains the same, chemoreceptors in the carotid arteries and aorta don't bcome stimulate and hence don't stimulate an increase in respiration.

Back 519

theta=sin^-1(n2/n1)

Front 520

# Anomers are diasteromers that differ only in their configuration around the 1st carbon (they are not mirror images).

Back 520

True.

Front 521

# Epimers are open chain monosacharides which differ in configuration around the second carbon.

Back 521

True; therefore the # of neutrons, N, should increase faster than the # of protons, Z.

Front 522

# Anomers: alpha anomer (hydroxyl substut on C1 is oriented down from the plane of the moelcue, trans to the substitutent on C5); beta-anomer: oriented up and cist to subst on C5.

Back 522

a nucleus which will become a fissioning nucleus after the addition of one neutron. IE: if thorium-233 is the only thorium isotope that spontaneously undergoes fission, Th-232 is a fissile.

Front 523

# Monosaccharide in an aqueous solution will form 2 isomeric cyclic hemiacetals or anomers.

Back 523

X is a positron b/c need to balance out charge. Not a proton b/c then the mass won't be balanced out.

Front 524

# Lysogenic virus is one that infects a cell, integrates itself into its DNA and then sites there for omse amnt of time b4 it does anything.

Back 524

True.

Front 525

# An attenuated virus is a virus that has something been weakend by mutation for instant - to make it safe to injest it into someone as a vaccine.

Back 525

True.

Front 526

# Genetic drift: a shift in gene frequency due to chance.

Back 526

True.

Front 527

# Translocation is when a chromosome fragment joins up with a homogous chromsome resulting in a hybrid chromsome that contains parts of the 2 original ones. Doesn't involve loss of DNA, just reassortment.

Back 527

True.

Front 528

# Increasing change of genetic divergence =>. Increases liklihood that it will undergo … into multipel species.

Back 528

TRUE

Front 529

# Genetic drift doesn't have anything to do with the appearance of new mutation -- it acts on all alleles, old and news.

Back 529

#

Front 530

# There is an increase in arterial pressure immediately before and during exercise; this is used by sympathetic NS.

Back 530

#

Front 531

# Vasodilation increases the blood flow thru those vessels supplying the active muscle and vasoconstriction of other systemic blood vessels diverts blood to the tissue that needs it most.

Back 531

#

Front 532

# Buildup of lactic acid occurs during intial stages of strenuous exercise when glucose metabolsim and ATP production outpaces the O2 supply delivered to muscle.

Back 532

#

Front 533

# Increasing CO ==> Increases O2 delivery ==> Increases time till buildup of lactic acid.

Back 533

the # of moles of the reactants.

Front 534

# For stability of cyclohexeane substitutents; the energy increases as follows (increasingly want it to be in axial too): Br, OH, NH2, CH3, CH(CH3)2, C(CH3)3)

Back 534

#

Front 535

# The antigen binding site of an antibody represents the antibody's tertiary structure. The tertiary structure of a protein is its 3D shape which is determine by interactions btw its constitutent amino acids including hydrogen bonds, disulfide bonds, and various van der Waals forces. This 3D structure in turn determines a protein's ability to interact w/ his enviorment and w/ its substrate which in the case of an antibody means its ability to interact with its antigen.

Front 536

# Carbon dioxide is typically transported as bicarbonate ion, HCO3-, in the bloodstream.

Back 536

#

Front 537

# In the presence of ethoide ion, which is a strong base, alkyl halides will readily undergo bimoelcular elimnation to form alkenes.

Back 537

#

Front 538

# In blood, most of all the CO2 combines with water in the RBCs forming carbonic acid, H2CO3. This rxn is catalyzed by enzyme carbonic anhydrase => H+ and HCO3-. H+ ions bind to Hb molecules, thereby preventing a sharp decrease in blood. Once this blood has reached the capillaries of the lung, this process is reversed: HCO3- + HB+ => H2CO3 => CO2 + H2O. CO2 diffuses out of the capillaries and is expired via the respiratory tract.

Front 539

# Centromere: specialized site that joins 2 sister chromatids together during mitosis.

Back 539

#

Front 540

# Probes having a greater degree of complementarity with normal DNA b/c it will bind better.

Back 540

K = delta(KE) = 0.5*m*(v_f^2-v_o^2)

Front 541

# Enolziaton may occure b/c a phenol (enol) form is aromatic and more stable than the correpsonding carbonyl form.

Back 541

#

Front 542

# Generally carbonyl cmpds are more stable than their corresponding enols unless resonance can be obtained.

Back 542

#

Front 543

# Tautomers structural isomers that are concepturally related by the shift of a H and one or more pi bonds.

Back 543

#

Front 544

# Lactose: breaks lactose glucose and galactose.

Back 544

#

Front 545

# Kinase: phosphorylates its substrate.

Back 545

#

Front 546

# Zymogen: an enzyme that is secreted in an inactive from of the enzyme. Import exs: pepsinogen, trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen.

Back 546

#

Front 547

# Lipase: breaks down lipds into free fatty acids.

Back 547

#

Front 548

# Amylase, lipases, and bicarbonate are released thru the pancreatic duct.

Back 548

#

Front 549

# Glucose and amino acids are picked up by blood.

Back 549

#

Front 550

# Fats are picked up by lacteals which are specialized ecssels that connect with the lymphatic system.

Back 550

#

Front 551

# In the nephrons, the glomerulus, Bowman's capsule and the proximal and distal convoluted tubule are in the cortex while the loop of Henle and the colelcting tubule are in the medulla.

Back 551

#

Front 552

# Ammonia is transformed into urea in the liver and excreted by the kidney.

Back 552

#

Front 553

# Salts, glucose, and amino acids are reabsorbed by active tarnsport while water is reabsorbed by diffusion.

Back 553

#

Front 554

# All hemotopoiesis occurs in the bone marrow for adults.

Back 554

#

Front 555

# For fetus, hematopoiesis occurs in the fetal liver.

Back 555

#

Front 556

# Spleen acts as a reservoir for red blod cells and filters the blood.

Back 556

#

Front 557

# Blood platelets are crucial for the clotting of blood.

Back 557

#

Front 558

# Certain white blood cells such as macrophages and neutrophils engluf foreign matter.

Back 558

#

Front 559

# HPLC and chomatopgraphy in general are used to separte and isolate a mixture of cmopounds according to their solvent polarity and ability to move thru a column based on he cmpds affinity toward that column. Can use this to identify the # of indivudal cmpds.

Back 559

#

Front 560

# Without glucose-6-phosphatase, the phosphorylated glucose (glucose-6-P) obtained from glycogen breakdown cannot be dephosphorylated to produce glucose. Leads to hypoglycemia.

Back 560

#

Front 561

# Glucose is normally converted to pyruvate in the liver (infact, in all cells during glycolysis).

Back 561

#

Front 562

# Glucagon is a pancreatic hormone that leads to an increase in blood glucose levels.

Back 562

#

Front 563

# Lack of glycolysis is resposnible for increase in pH.

Back 563

#

Front 564

# Gluconeogenesis is the formation of glucose from precursor moelcules; this pathway occurs in the liver.

Back 564

#

Front 565

# Both fructorse-6-P and glyceraldehdye-3-P are intermeates in the glycolytic pathway.

Back 565

#

Front 566

# Muscle lacks the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase so it is unable to convert glucose-6-P (produced during glycogen breakdown) to uncharged glucose which is capble of crossign the muscle cell membrane. Muscle cannot release glucose to bloodstream. IMportant in ensuring tha tmuscle has an adeuqate energy supply.

Back 566

#

Front 567

# Liver can convert pyruvate to glucose; this is gluconeogenesis.

Back 567

#

Front 568

# Liver and muscle can boths ynthesize glycogen from glucose.

Back 568

#

Front 569

# Muscle does rely on glycolysis for energy during exercose; ehnce the buildup of lactic acid (and the drop in pH mentioned in the passage) in muscle tissue during exertion.

Back 569

#

Front 570

# Glycogen breakdown is primarily regulated via hormonal (glucagon) and ionic (calcium and phosphate) triggers.

Back 570

#

Front 571

# Muscle glycogen is identical to all other glycogen found in the body; the export of glucose is prevented by the absence of glucose-6-Pase and the subsequent unability to dephosphorylate glucose-6-P.

Back 571

#

Front 572

# Primary storage depot for glycogen is liver.

Back 572

#

Front 573

# Adipose tissue stores fat.

Back 573

#

Front 574

# McArdle's disease (mucle glycogen phosphorylate - key enzyme in glocogen berakdown is absent in muscle). ADP/ATP ratio will be high in muscle (due to inability to produce ATP via glycolysis and subsequent the citric acid cycle) but should be normal in liver since liver glycogen phosphorylase is not missing. Levels of lactate during exercise will be low due to the inability to run glycolyiss (pH increase). Ina bility to usemsucle glycogen to produce glucose would lead to a demand for an alternative glucose source; this would most likely come from liver glycogen stores, and teh body would have a greater demand for liver glycogen than normal.

Back 574

#

Front 575

# Pedigree systemic analysis: (1) nis the disease dominant or recessive? If it is recessive you should observe alteration of generation which means that unafflicted parents may have children who are afflicted. (2) It is autosomal or sexlinked? If it is sexlinked, moremales than femlaes will have the disease. If the disease is rare, only males will have it since a female must be homozygous to have teh disease. (3) If it is sex linked, is it X-linked ot Y-=linked. If it is Y-linked, all males descended from an affected mate will also have the disease.

Back 575

#

Front 576

# If parents of affected indivuals are not affected themselves, they must be carriers and the trait must be recessive.

Back 576

#

Front 577

If the frequency of an X linked allele in a given population is 0.08, what proportion of males are bone with the disease?

Back 577

The gender genotype for male is XY, thus males can be either X_normY or X_AbnormY. If the freq of the X_abn is 0.08, then the frequency of affected males is always just the frquency of the abnormla X. Note: HW eq don't apply here b/c there is no chance for males to be homozygous.

Front 578

# Population is geographically isolated => no gene flow occurs.

Back 578

#

Front 579

> will attack benzene.

Back 579

#

Front 580

# Benzne is however not susceptible to nucleophilcif attack from such as grignard and alkyllithium reagents and hydroxides.

Back 580

#

Front 581

# Alkanes are inert to normal acids.

Back 581

#

Front 582

# Due to their strong nucleophilic, basic carbons, alkylithium reagents react violently with acid.

Back 582

#

Front 583

# Addition of H+ to alkenes results in carbocation intermediate (remember Markov rate).

Back 583

#

Front 584

# Lewis acids are moelcules that can accept a pair of nonbonding electrons. These molecules can be eaisly recognized b/c they always have a positive charge and/or incmoplete octet.

Back 584

#

Front 585

# Stereoselectivity: term used to define the orientation of attack of 2 molecuels added across a dbl or trpl bond. If it is not an addition rxn, then there is no stereoselectivity.

Back 585

#

Front 586

# Expiratory reserve volume: amnt of air that can be forcibly expelled after a normal resting expiration.

Back 586

#

Front 587

# In emphysema, bronchioles are obstructed during expiration and lung elasticity is reduced. Get increased residual volume; greatly expanded chest cavity. Patients with emphysema actually don't have difficult breathing in (their diaphram works just fine... they have problems breathing out!). Reduced lung elasticity greatly reduces lung recoil => these patients rely more heavily on ABDOMINAL contraction to help force air out of lung. Combined effect of obstructed bronchioles and reduce recoild is to retain air in the lungs ==> incrase residual volume!

Back 587

#

Front 588

Contraction of the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles drives inspiration. When the diaphragm contracts, the size of the chest cavity increases => increases thoracic volume => pressure in alveoli decreases below P_atm. This what allows air to enter the respiratory system.

Back 588

#

Front 589

# The brain is required for the inhibition of urination, not the actual urination itself, which is controlled by the sacral neurons. If the brain is removed from the picture by severing the spinal chord btw the sacral neurons and the brain (the thoracic region), the urination would simply become automatic in which the entire bladder empties when it becomes full whether the time is appropriate or not.

Back 589

#

Front 590

# Exmple of passive transport: movement of protons into mitochondrial matrix in oxidative phosphorylation, w/ the proton in flux => ATP synthesis.

Back 590

#

Front 591

# Secondary active transport (require ATP indrectly). Na/glucose cotransporter: movement of Na is driven by its concentraiton gradient and the conc gradient was initially setup via active transport.

Back 591

#

Front 592

# If the endocrine fctn of the pancreas was damaged, insulin and glucagon would no longer be secreted.

Back 592

#

Front 593

# A lack of glucagon secretions would prevent blood sugar from rising btw meals (ie. During fasting times.)

Back 593

#

Front 594

# Excrine fctn of the pancras is to provide digestime enzymes and has nothing to do with blood sugar regulation.

Back 594

#

Front 595

# Liver: secreting of bile salts (exocrine fctn of liver)

Back 595

#

Front 596

# The more substutitued the olefin is, is usually the more stable isomer.

Back 596

#

Front 597

# Decreasing generation time => increases growth rate… As generation time levels off, this indicates that the bacteria are approaching their maxmimum growth rate.

Back 597

#

Front 598

# A base when treated with an acid will go to aqueous layer and then be regenerated w/ subsequent treatment w/ base.

Back 598

#

Front 599

# If no peak downfield of 5.9 ppm => no aromatic cmpd such as benzene.

Back 599

#

Front 600

# A cmpd that reacts with cold KMNO4 suggests presence of a C=C bond.

Back 600

#

Front 601

# NMR peaks at 5.9 and 5.5 ppm are indicative of the presence of an olefin (C=C).

Back 601

#

Front 602

# TLC and electrophoresis are most conveniently used on a small scale.

Back 602

#

Front 603

# Distillation is a godo separation technique amenable to large amnt of material.

Back 603

#

Front 604

# Recombination (ie. Crossing over) occurs only during meiosis, the formation of gametes. Doesn't occur during normal cell division (mitosis) and there would occur during embryo formation.

Back 604

#

Front 605

# By the time the embryo has reached gastrulation, the cells are no long totipotent.

Back 605

#

Front 606

# Gastrulation: formation of the primary germ layers; clearly the cells are committed to a pariticular cause of development at this point. Lost the ability to differentiate.

Back 606

#

Front 607

# All mature (differentiate) cells contain the same genome and could theoretically be totipotent. Gene regulation causes some genes to be exposed in some ??? And other genes to e silent => lack of ability to express all genes that causes the lost of totipotency.

Back 607

#

Front 608

# Plasma membranes of skeletal cells don't contain gap junctions so they don't share cytoplasmic content.

Back 608

#

Front 609

# Need gap junctions to share cytoplasmic content.

Back 609

#

Front 610

# Cardiac and smooth muscle cells have gap junctions.

Back 610

#

Front 611

# IR absorbance at 3320 and 2120 cm^-1 are indicative of a terminal acetYlene (C triple bond C or triple bond C-H.

Back 611

#

Front 612

# Terminal acetylinese are somwhat acidic, thus the acetylene can be deprotonated and deuterum put in place of the propton => disappearance of singlet.

Back 612

#

Front 613

# Inhibition of the electron transport chain will automatically lead to inhibiton of the Krebs cycle (and the PDC)

Back 613

#

Front 614

# CO binds to cytocrome oxidase and prevents the final rxn of the electron transport chain => Krebs cycle and PDC inhibited.

Back 614

#

Front 615

# Myoglobin (in comparison to hemoglobin) releases significant amnts of its O2 wonly at relatively low PO2.

Back 615

#

Front 616

# Cholesterol is only a precurosor for seroid hormones.

Back 616

#

Front 617

# Vasopressin (aka. ADH) is a pituitary peptide hormone.

Back 617

#

Front 618

# Cholesterol is the precursor for the adrenocortical hormones including mineralcorticoids (aldosterone), glucocoritcoids (cortisol) and gonadocorticoids (including estrogen).

Back 618

#

Front 619

# Individuals that lock 5-alpha-ketosteroid reductase are unable to convert testosterone to dihydrotestosterone. In other words, they have an over abundance of testosterone yet their external genitalia fails to masculinize prior to puberty => thus, testosterone must not control masculinization prior to puberty.

Back 619

#

Front 620

# Maturaiton of the external genitalia is triggered by increased levels of testosterone during puberty.

Back 620

#

Front 621

# The stability of the products is used to determine delta(H_rxn), a thermodynamic principle.

Back 621

#

Front 622

# Sterid considerations in the transition state control the rate of chemical rxn (kinetics).

Back 622

#

Front 623

# A physical organic chemist argued that the formation of the axial alcohol is favored w/ bulky reducing agents solely b/c the hydride experiences minimal steric hundrance when attacking from equatorial direction => therefore, this argument is based on kinetic consideration.

Back 623

#

Front 624

# Equatorial OH's are more accessible to form hydrogen bonds w/ the stationary phase.

Back 624

#

Front 625

# 1,4 trans alcohols may have longer HPLC retention times using a polar stationary phase b/c equatliral OH's are more accesible to form H-bonds w/ the stationary phase.

Back 625

#

Front 626

# Axial alcohols don't necessarily have a higher BP.

Back 626

#

Front 627

# Hydrogens bound to more electronegative atoms have positive character and are electrophilic; not nucleophilic.

Back 627

#

Front 628

# Acid hydrogen tend to be electrophilic even before dissociation.

Back 628

#

Front 629

# nUcleophilic hydrogens are actually strogn bases.

Back 629

#

Front 630

# Aldehydes, esters, and carboxylic acids are all reactive w/ hydride baring reducing agents.

Back 630

#

Front 631

# Acetal is not reactive to nuclophilic attack by H (Reduce agents).

Back 631

#

Front 632

# Ca2+ is required to bind troponin, change its conformation, thereby changing the conformation of tropomyosin and exposing the myosin binding sites on actin.

Back 632

#

Front 633

# Tropomyosin and troponin are components of the thin filament (along w/ actin)

Back 633

#

Front 634

# Cones transduce color for the brain; (3 specitic types of cones and are specific for different wavelength of light).

Back 634

#

Front 635

# Rods respond to black and white image.

Back 635

#

Front 636

# Inhibiting the activity of Na-K ATPase pumps would result in secondary active transport being impaired (such as glucose pumps that rely on Na gradient)

Back 636

#

Front 637

# Anti is 180 degrees apart while gouche is 60 degrees apart.

Back 637

#

Front 638

# CO and CO2: carbon atoms are sp hybridized.

Back 638

#

Front 639

# CO3 2-: carbon atom is sp^2 hybridized.

Back 639

#

Front 640

# Cis disubstituted means that the ring contains two substituted groups on the same side of the ring.

Back 640

#

Front 641

# (CH3CH2)3CBr more likely to undergo an SN1 rxn than (CH3CH2)3CF: Bromine is a better leaving group than fluorine (it's less electronegative)

Back 641

#

Front 642

# Example of highest energy species on an SN2 rxn coordinate diagram (see notes). Transition state is pentacoordinated; usually nucleophile and LG are both electronrich.

Back 642

#

Front 643

Acid catalyzed addition of water to a C=C dbl bond begins with protonation of the dbl bond to form a carbocation. Nucleophilic attack by water result in formation of an alcohol w/ markovnikov regiochemistry.

Back 643

#

Front 644

# Addition HCl to a C=C dbl bond proceeds in 2 steps. 1) protonation of the dbl bond to form a carbonium intermeidate; 2) nucleophilic attack of a chloride ion to the carbonic completes the addition.

Back 644

#

Front 645

# In the pressence of peroxides, HBr adds to a C=C dbl bond via a radical mechanism: Addition of the bromine radical to the dbl bond produces a planar, sp2 hybridized carbon radical. Antimarkov: H added to more subistutted carbon of the dbl bond, while Br is added to less substituted carbon.

Back 645

#

Front 646

# In electrophilic aromatic substitution, the aromatic ring acts as a nucleophilc attack an electrophile. Due to the aromaticity of the ring, the ring is relatively unreactive and is a poor nuclephile. Extremely reactive electrophiles are used to overcome this limitation.

Back 646

#

Front 647

# A hemiacetal (made from the nucleophilic attack by water to an aldehyde) contains a carbon w/ a single hydroxyl substitutent (-OH) and a single akoxy substituent (-OR)

Back 647

#

Front 648

In an alpha-beta-unsaturated aldehdye, a nucleophile readily adds to the beat-carbon b/c the pi electrons are delocalized to which atom?

Back 648

The carbonyl oxygen!

Front 649

# Since the nucleophilic addition of an alcohol to an aldehyde is a one step bimoelcular rxn (that is, involving 2 diff molecules), it will exhibit 2nd order kinetics (rate of the rxn will be dep on the conc of both molecules involved.

Back 649

#

Front 650

# Know aldol condensation (loose H2o and form alpha-beta unsatruated cmpd).

Back 650

#

Front 651

# The least polar a cmd, the faster it will travel during TLC and the larger Rf value it will have.

Back 651

#

Front 652

# The regio nfrom 2100-2300 cm6-1 of the IR specturm shows the characteristic absoroptin of C tripble bond C and C triple bond N.

Back 652

#

Front 653

# 1700 cm^-1 correpsond to C=O.

Back 653

#

Front 654

# Valine is hydrophobic side chain.

Back 654

#

Front 655

# Glycine is the only naturally occuring achiral aa.

Back 655

#

Front 656

# In fisher projections, L places the hydroxyl grp of the sterocenter on the left side of the carbohydrate. (one furhtest from aldehyde).

Back 656

#

Front 657

# Alpha amino acid (like the 20 naturally occuring amino acids) contains an amine and carboxylic acid functional grp bound to the same carbon atom.

Back 657

#

Front 658

# A meso cmpd has sterocenter but no overall chirality due to an internal plan ce of symmetry.

Back 658

#

Front 659

# Electronegative atoms increase acidity thru the inductive effect.

Back 659

#

Front 660

# If a bound grp is positive, it will make a good LG b/c cleavage of the indicated bond will neutralize the positive charge.

Back 660

#

Front 661

# There is no nucleophilic attack on a carbocation intermediate for elimination rxns. For E1 rxns, carbocation is formed and a deprotonation of an alpha-hydrogen by a base results in the formation of a pi bond.

Back 661

#

Front 662

# Alkane halogenation rxns proceed by free radical halogenation. Alkanes have no potential LG. They don't undergo SN1, SN2, or E1 rxns.

Back 662

#

Front 663

# Addition of Br2 to an alekne cocurs w/ anti stereoselectivity, adding one bromine to each carbon of the dbl bond, from the opposite faces of the dbl bond.

Back 663

#

Front 664

# Potassium permagnagate (KMnO4) adds to hydroxyl grps across a C=C double bond w/ syn sterochemistry (from the same face of the dbl bond).

Back 664

#

Front 665

# B2H6 (or BH3) followed by oxidative conditions (hydrogen peroxide) results in the additoin of water (H/OH) across a C=C dbl bond (ANTI MARKOV).

Back 665

#

Front 666

# CaCO3/Pd is a poisoned catalyst.

Back 666

#

Front 667

# Radical hydrogenation of a C=C trpl bond to the presence fo sodium metal and ammonia (Na(s), NH3(l)) adds 2 hydrogen atoms across the dbl bond w/ antisterselectivity, produce an E alkene.

Back 667

#

Front 668

# Spectroscopy in general is sued in identification of cmpds.

Back 668

#

Front 669

# Distillation, crystallization, and extractions are commonly used techniqus to isolate an dpurify cmpds.

Back 669

#

Front 670

# Distillation would be the most conveneint technique to separate acetone (3-C) and nonate (9-C) b/c due to the large difference in moelculear size they will have very different bps.

Back 670

#

Front 671

# NaCl is an ionic salt => charge and has very high water solubility.

Back 671

#

Front 672

# PhOCH2CH2 can participate in H bonding w/ water b/c it can function as a hydrogen bond acceptor (O electrons).

Back 672

#

Front 673

# Ch3NH2 can participate in H-bond w/ H2O b/c it can function as a H bond donor (N-H protons) or acceptor (N electrons).

Back 673

#

Front 674

# 1CH3 is a strong base than -NH2 and -OH b/c carbon is less electronegative than N and O.

Back 674

#

Front 675

# For radical stability, if all are particular type (ie. 2nd ary), the look for stability from resonance.

Back 675

#

Front 676

# IN the presence of light, bromine reacts with alkanes in a process called free radical halogenation. This rxn substitutes a bromine for a H and is sel;ective for tertiary carbons over secondary (and primary).

Back 676

#

Front 677

# Bulky potassiu mtertbutoxide promote elimination rxns of molecules bearing leaving grps.

Back 677

#

Front 678

# KCN is a good nucleophile (-CN)

Back 678

#

Front 679

# Solvation of the starting material, stabilizes it => increases the activation barrier and slows the reaction rate.

Back 679

#

Front 680

# Hydrolysis is used to break down triglycerides, proteins, carbohydrates, and is involved in nucleotide catabolism.

Back 680

#

Front 681

# A nucleotie is a ribose sugar, a phosphate grp, and a nitrogenous base. The nucleotides in DNA are held together by phosphodiester bonds.

Back 681

#

Front 682

# Cellulose is found in plant cell walls and is not digestible by humans.

Back 682

#

Front 683

# Plants store carbohydrates as start.

Back 683

#

Front 684

# Animals stor carbohydrates as glycogen.

Back 684

#

Front 685

# Protein is the only major nutrient containing nitrogen.

Back 685

#

Front 686

# Fats such as prostaglandins behave as hormones.

Back 686

#

Front 687

# Phospholipid bilayer membrane is a fatty component of cell structure.

Back 687

#

Front 688

# Fats are a more efficient ofrm of energy storage than carboyhydrates and porteins.

Back 688

#

Front 689

# Boeth alpha and beta linkage in polysacchardies are hydrolyzed by adding water.

Back 689

#

Front 690

# alpha-1-4 glucosidase and beta-1-4-glucosidase: these are enzyme catalysts which are never reactants.

Back 690

#

Front 691

# Lowering the concentraiton of a substrate will only lower the rate of an enzymatic rxn if the enzyme is not saturated.

Back 691

#

Front 692

# Adding a noncompettitve inhibitor will definitely lower the rate of a rxn b/c it lowers Vmax.

Back 692

#

Front 693

# Increasing the temp, increases the reaction rate, however, is not usually a method used to accelerate enzyme catalyzed rxns b/c the heat changes the configuration of proteins (high temp will denature the enzyme).

Back 693

#

Front 694

# The implanted, fertilized embryo produces chorionic gonadotropin, which stimulates the corpus luteum to continue producing progesterone in a positive feedback mechanism.

Back 694

#

Front 695

# A competitive inhibitor may be overcome by increasing the concentration of substrate.

Back 695

#

Front 696

# Peptidases that function in the stomach work at a low pH. Once chyme enters the small intestine, it encounters an alkaline environment meaning high pH and most likely decreases their function.

Back 696

#

Front 697

# The Krebs cycle occurs within the mitochondrial matrix in all eukaryotic cells.

Back 697

#

Front 698

# As electrons flow, the carriers pass along one or two electrons, and are reduced (gaine electrons) then oxidized (lose electrons) until the last carrier donates electrons to oxygen. As electrons move within the e- transport chain, each intermediate carrier molecule is reduced by the preceeding molecule and oxidized by the following molecule.

Back 698

#

Front 699

# The electrons from NADH drive protons outwards across the inner mitochondrial membrane.

Back 699

#

Front 700

# The process of fermentation includes glycolysis which produces 2 ATP. The net ATP production from fermentation: 2ATP.

Back 700

#

Front 701

# Heart and liver cells can produce more ATP for each molecule of glucose than other cells in the body. This is most likely result of a more efficient mechanism for moving NADH produced in glycolysis into the mtiochondrial matrix.

Back 701

#

Front 702

# ATP synthase is on the inner mitochondrial matrix, NOT the outermitochondrial membrane.

Back 702

#

Front 703

# The introns (intervening seuqences) are removed during post transcriptional modification.

Back 703

#

Front 704

# When dealing w/ electrophoresis; its an electrolytic cell: (+) anode, (-) cathode => DNA has phosphate grps that are negatively charged and are attracted to the positively charged anode.

Back 704

#

Front 705

# DNA replciation is semiconservative, which means that both strands are replicated, and each old strand is combined w/ a new strand.

Back 705

#

Front 706

# Complementary strand of DNA are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Back 706

#

Front 707

# mRNA leaves the nucleus in its finished form (introns are already sliced out b4 it leaves the nucleus).

Back 707

#

Front 708

# Translation doesn't take place within the nucleus… even tho there are ribosomes in the nucleolus)

Back 708

#

Front 709

# The large subunit of an SOS ribusome is made from rRNA and protein.

Back 709

#

Front 710

# For tRNA: P site stands for peptidyl site where the growing peptide chain attaches to the tRNA.

Back 710

#

Front 711

# During translocation, a signal peptide is synthesized and attaches to an SRP complex in order to direct the ribosome to attach to the ER. Signal peptidases attach to SRPs to direct the ribosome to attach to a membrane such as the ER. The signal peptide is usually removed during translation.

Back 711

#

Front 712

# A primary spermatocyte has finished the S phase of interphase but not the first meiotic division. Thus, it has 46 chromosomes.

Back 712

#

Front 713

# In normal mieosis, the only change in the nucleotide seuqence of the thrid chromosome will occur during crossing over. Corssing over occurs in prophase I.

Back 713

#

Front 714

# In metaphase I, we see tetrads.

Back 714

#

Front 715

# Centrioles migrate in prophase of mitosis.

Back 715

#

Front 716

# Chromsomes align in metaphse.

Back 716

#

Front 717

# Centromeres split in anaphase.

Back 717

#

Front 718

# Cytokinesis usually occurs during telophase.

Back 718

#

Front 719

# During prophase of mitosis, centriole migration to the cell poles occurs.

Back 719

#

Front 720

# In meiosis: in prophase 1: a tetrad will form and genetic recombination will occur; spindle apparatus will always form…. Anaphase: chromosomal migration

Back 720

#

Front 721

# The life cycle of all oocytes is arrested at the primary oocyte stage until puberty.

Back 721

#

Front 722

# After replication occurs in the S phase of interphase, the cell is called a primary spermatocyte or primary oocyte. Just before ovulation, a primary oocyte undergoes the 1st meiotic division to become a secondary oocyte.

Back 722

#

Front 723

# Prior to infecting a bacterium, a bacteriophase must attach to a receptor on the bacterial cell membrane. The 1st step in the infection of a host is attachment of the phage tail to a specific receptor on the host cell membrane. The capsid on the bacteriophage doesn't enter the host cell.

Back 723

#

Front 724

# Animal viruses attach by recognizing a receptor protein and entering through endocytosis.

Back 724

#

Front 725

# In the lysogenic cyle of viral infection is a ecll that harbors inactive viral DNA in its genome.

Back 725

#

Front 726

A bacteriophage has a tail and fibers.

Back 726

#

Front 727

# Prokaryotes have a cell wall that contains peptidoglycan, ribosomes, and a plasma membrane w/o cholesterol.

Back 727

#

Front 728

# Transformation: DNA is aquired irectly from the medium.

Back 728

#

Front 729

# Transduction: transfer of DNA via a virus.

Back 729

#

Front 730

# There is no sexual reproduction in bacteria.

Back 730

#

Front 731

# Conjugation occurs btw 2 bacteria.

Back 731

#

Front 732

# A bacterium w/ an outer membrane is gram negative and protected against certain antibiotics such as penicillin.

Back 732

#

Front 733

# The exponential growth in bacteria is due to binary fission - asexual reproduction.

Back 733

#

Front 734

# Bacilli are rod shaped.

Back 734

#

Front 735

# Cocci are round

Back 735

#

Front 736

# Spirilli are rigid helixes

Back 736

#

Front 737

# Transduction, transformation, and conjugation aren't methods of reproduction in bacteria. They are methods of genetic recombination which is associated w/ sexual reproduction in eukaryotes, but not necssarily associated w/ reproduction in prokaryotes.

Back 737

#

Front 738

# Bacterial plasma membranes use a phospholipid bilayer.

Back 738

#

Front 739

# Bacterial cell walls are made from peptidoglycan.

Back 739

#

Front 740

# Fungi are unique b/c they are immotile and have a cell wall (like most plants), but are heterotrophic and not photosynthetic (like most animals).

Back 740

#

Front 741

# Fungi are saprophytic. Saprophytes are organisms that break down the dead remains of living organsims.

Back 741

#

Front 742

# Fungi are heterotrophs.

Back 742

#

Front 743

# The selective advantage is offered by the haploid state of fungi is that the haploid state can reporduce more quickly than the diploid state under favorable conditions. Haploid spores can form and spread faster and more efficeintly than diploid zygotes b/c they don't undergo meiosis.

Back 743

#

Front 744

# Similar to the plan kingdom, the fungi kingdom is divided into divisions.

Back 744

#

Front 745

# B/c fungus is more like human cells, drugs that attack fungi are more likely to affect human cells.

Back 745

#

Front 746

# Fungi are exodigesters; they put enzymes into their food while it is outside their bodies and then absorb the nutrients. Although dead matter is more susceptible to fungal attack, fungi may attack living or dead matter.

Back 746

#

Front 747

# Yeast is an example of a facultative anaerobe.

Back 747

#

Front 748

# With the exception of yeast, fungi are multicellular. Yeasts are unicellular.

Back 748

#

Front 749

# Fungal cells may contain >1 nuclei.

Back 749

#

Front 750

# Fungi lack centrioles . Mitosis in fungi takes place entirely w/in the nucleus, the nuclear envelope never breaks down.

Back 750

#

Front 751

# The flagella of bacterial are made from the protein flagellin, NOT from microtubules.

Back 751

#

Front 752

# All of the following are composed of microtubules: the tail of a sperm cell, the spindle apparatus, cilia of the fallopoian tubes.

Back 752

#

Front 753

# The nucleolus disappears during prophase.

Back 753

#

Front 754

# The nucleolus is the site of rRNA transcription. Nucleolus is not membrane bound and shouldn't be confused with the nucleoid of prokaryotes.

Back 754

#

Front 755

# Liver cells would be expected to contain a lot of smooth ER b/c its most active in detoxification, one of the jobs of smooth ER.

Back 755

#

Front 756

# Desmosomes are anchored to the cytoskeleton and are stronger than tight junctions.

Back 756

#

Front 757

# The nucleus runs the cell and makes nucleic acids.

Back 757

#

Front 758

# Golgi body packages materials for transport.

Back 758

#

Front 759

# RER makes proteins for use outside the cell.

Back 759

#

Front 760

# Smooth ER helps to detoxify alcohol in the liver.

Back 760

#

Front 761

# Hycholytic enzymes of lysosomes are activated by low pH achieved by pumping proteins into the interior.

Back 761

#

Front 762

# Invertebrates don't have myelinated axons to accelerate nervous impulse transmission. Instead they rely upon increased sized.

Back 762

#

Front 763

# Invertebrartes is a subphylum of chordata which is characterized by a dorsal nerve chord at some point in their development.

Back 763

#

Front 764

# Cerebellum controlls finely coordinate muscular movement.

Back 764

#

Front 765

# Involuntary breathing movements are controlled by the medulla oblongata.

Back 765

#

Front 766

# The knee jerk reflex is governed by the spinal chord.

Back 766

#

Front 767

# Second synapse: neuroeffector (an end-organ synapse)

Back 767

#

Front 768

# Every type of synapse in the PNS uses Ach as its NT except the second (neuroeffector) synapse in the sympathetic NS>

Back 768

#

Front 769

# An effector is an organ or muscle, something that responds to the neural innervation by making something happen in the body. Pilerection of the hair cells of the body AND contraction of the abdominal muscle during exercise: ARE mediated by skeletal muscles which don't receive autonomic innervation (symp/parasymp)

Back 769

#

Front 770

# A result of parasympathetic stimulation: vasodilation of the arteries leading to the kidneys.

Back 770

#

Front 771

# Pressure waves, or sound, are converted to neural signals by hair cells in the organ of Corti in the cochlea.

Back 771

#

Front 772

# Motor neurons exit ventrally from the spinal chord.

Back 772

#

Front 773

# An effector is organ or tissue affected by a nervous impulse.

Back 773

#

Front 774

# The CNS is composed of the brain and spinal chord.

Back 774

#

Front 775

# Cerebrum is also called the cerebral cortex.

Back 775

#

Front 776

# A simple reflex doesn't involve neurons in the brain.

Back 776

#

Front 777

# Aldosterone is a steroid (any hormone whose nerve ends in "sterone" or something similar is a steroid)

Back 777

#

Front 778

# Aldosterone exerts its effect by increasing the production Na/K pump proteins.

Back 778

#

Front 779

# Adrenal cortex is aldosterone's source.

Back 779

#

Front 780

# Renin is released in response to low blood pressure.

Back 780

#

Front 781

# All hormones bind to a protein receptor whether at the cell membrane, in the cytoplasm, or in the nucleus of the cell.

Back 781

#

Front 782

# Steroids and thyroxine require a transport protein to dissolve in the aqueous solution of the blood.

Back 782

#

Front 783

# Steroids are derived from cholesterol.

Back 783

#

Front 784

# Ach acts through a 2nd messenger system but is not a 2nd messenger hormone itself.

Back 784

#

Front 785

# Different steroids may have different target cells. Ie: estrogens are very selective while testosterone affects every, or nearly every, cell in the body.

Back 785

#

Front 786

# Steroids act at the transcription level in the nucleus, and are synthesized by the smooth ER.

Back 786

#

Front 787

# Steroids act at the level of trasncription by regulating the amnt of mRNA transcribed.

Back 787

#

Front 788

# Sympathetic: think "flgiht or fight".

Back 788

#

Front 789

# The hormones of the posterior pituitary are synthesized in the bodies of neurons in the hypothaslamus and transported down the axons of these nerves to the posterior pituitary.

Back 789

#

Front 790

# Menopaus can cause osteroporesis (decrease in bone tissue)

Back 790

#

Front 791

# Glucagon increases blood sugar, a good thing if running a marathon.

Back 791

#

Front 792

# ACTH: peptide that simulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids via the 2nd messenger system using cAMP. Release is stimulated by many types of stress.

Back 792

#

Front 793

# Glucorticoids are stress hormones.

Back 793

#

Front 794

# PTH stimulates osteoclast (bone resorption) activity. Also works in kendys to slow a2+ loss in urine.

Back 794

#

Front 795

# Testes normally descend during late fetal development.

Back 795

#

Front 796

# Increased secretion of estrogen sets off the luteal surge which involves increased secretion of LH and leads to ovluation.

Back 796

#

Front 797

# Epididymus is wher eteh sperm goes to mature and be stored until ejaculation.

Back 797

#

Front 798

# Testosterone is secreted by the seminiferous tubules.

Back 798

#

Front 799

# Progesterone results from the degeneration of the corpus luteum which occurs b/c fertilization of the egg and implantation didn't happen.

Back 799

#

Front 800

# Thickening of the endometrial lining occurs while estrogen and progesterone levels are high, not while progesterone secretion is decreasing.

Back 800

#

Front 801

# Increasing estrogen causes the lutea surge.

Back 801

#

Front 802

# The adrenal cortex makes many other steroid based hormones as well as testosterone.

Back 802

#

Front 803

# Mammalian eggs undergo holoblastic cleavage where division occurs throughout the whole cell.

Back 803

#

Front 804

# All of the following describes cleavage in human embryos: the solid ball of cells produced during cleavage is called a morula. The size of the embryo remains constant thorughout the cell divisons of cleavage. Daughter cells are genetically identical to parent cells.

Back 804

#

Front 805

# Pepsin is a catalyst which makes it a protein.

Back 805

#

Front 806

# A benefit for enzymes to be inactive while in the pancrease is that pancreatic cells aren't as easily replaced as intestinal epithelium.

Back 806

#

Front 807

# Stomach doesn't digest carbohdrates. If stomach acid secretion is obstructed, then a) fewer bacterial will be killed in the stomach; b) less pepsinogen will be activated; c) the pH will rise.

Back 807

#

Front 808

# Fat is digested in the small intestine.

Back 808

#

Front 809

# Bile is not an enzyme, its made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.

Back 809

#

Front 810

# Most chemical digestion occurs in the 1st part of the small intestine, the duodenum.

Back 810

#

Front 811

# Parietal cells secrete HCl.

Back 811

#

Front 812

# Goblet cells secrete mucous.

Back 812

#

Front 813

# Chief cells secrete pepsin.

Back 813

#

Front 814

# G cells secrete gastrin into the blood.

Back 814

#

Front 815

# Fat storage takes place in adipocytes.

Back 815

#

Front 816

# Protein degredation occurs in all cells.

Back 816

#

Front 817

# Gluconeogenesis is the production of glycogen form noncarbohydrate precursors. This is performed mainly in the liver.

Back 817

#

Front 818

# Most fat digestates enter the lymph as chylomicrons via lacteals.

Back 818

#

Front 819

# Smooth ER synthesizes triglycerides.

Back 819

#

Front 820

# "Essential" means that the body can't synthesize them (in regards to amino acids)

Back 820

#

Front 821

# Non-essentila AA's are synthesised by the liver.

Back 821

#

Front 822

# Aas are absorbed by facilitated and active tranpsort.

Back 822

#

Front 823

# Glycogenolysis: glycogen => glcuose.

Back 823

#

Front 824

# Insulin decreases blood sugar levels => inhibits glycogenolysis.

Back 824

#

Front 825

# The only process available for removal of wastes by Bowman's capsule is diffusion aided by the hydrostatic presseure of the blood.

Back 825

#

Front 826

# The epithelial cells of the proximal convoluted tabule contain a brush border whose purpose is to increase the surface area available to reabsorb solutes from the filtrate.

Back 826

#

Front 827

# Renin secretion catalyzes the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II, which increases the secretion of aldosterone. If renin is blocked, sodum reabsorption decreases.

Back 827

#

Front 828

# Urine flows as follows: collecting duct => ureter => urinary bladder => urethra.

Back 828

#

Front 829

# Aldosterone is a mineral corticoid released by the adrenal cortex in repsone to low blood pressure. Low BP => increase in aldosterone.

Back 829

#

Front 830

# The loop of henle concentrates the medulla via a net loss of solute to the medulla. This process is critical to the function of other parts of the nephron; a medulla with a high concentration of salt allows for passive absoption of water from the filtrate in other areas of the nephron.

Back 830

#

Front 831

# The AV node delays the contraction of the ventricles of the heart. It sits at the junction btw the atria and ventricles, pauses for a fraction of a second before passing an impulse to the ventricles.

Back 831

#

Front 832

# In the congenital heart defect known as patent ductus arteriosus, the ductus arteriosus, which connects the aorta and the pulmary artiers during fetal development, fails to close at birth. This will lead to less oxygenated blood reaching the systemic system b/c some oxygenated blood will be shunted from the aorta to the lower pressure pulmonary artieries. The pulmonary circulation will carry blood that is more oxygenated than normal since highly oxygenated blood from the aorta is mixing w/ deoxygenated blood on its way to the lungs. The entire heart will pump harder in order to compensate w/ more blood to the tissues.

Back 832

#

Front 833

# Blood loos is likely to be more rapid during arterial bleeding due to the greater bp in the arteries.

Back 833

#

Front 834

# Gas exchange btw blood and tissues occurs in capillaries only; Cpaillaries are one cell thick and blood moves slowly to allow for efficeint oxygen exchange.

Back 834

#

Front 835

# Hyperventillation results in loss of CO2, leading to lower concentraiton of carbonic acid in the blood => increase pH.

Back 835

#

Front 836

# Hypoventilation: causes decrease in pH.

Back 836

#

Front 837

# Breathing into a bag would increase the CO2 content of the air and lead to acidosis.

Back 837

#

Front 838

# Excess aldosterone may lead to metabolic alkalosis due to H+ ion exchange in the kidney.

Back 838

#

Front 839

# In the presence of a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, the rate of gas exchange in the lungs would decrease since: 1) carbonic anhydrase is a catalyst; 2) catalyst increases the rate of a rxn; 3) if the catalyst is inhibited, the rate decreases.

Back 839

#

Front 840

# CO2 partial pressure is greater in the blood in the systemic capillary beds than in the alveoli of the lungs.

Back 840

#

Front 841

# CO2 pp would not increase in the blood as it travels from the systemic venules to the inferior vena cava b/c blood [CO2] will not change in the veins; it has nowhere to go.

Back 841

#

Front 842

# CO2 pp is greater in the systemic tissues than the blood in the systemic capillary beds.

Back 842

#

Front 843

# The bronchioles are surrounded by smooth muscle (can constrict).

Back 843

#

Front 844

# Cartilage cannot constrict.

Back 844

#

Front 845

# Heavy exercise manifests increased [CO2] leads to increased carboxyhemoglobin.

Back 845

#

Front 846

# Innate immune response doesn't involve humoral immunity (B-cell) or cell mediated immunity (T cell). Innate immunity systems responds to any and every foreign invader w/ the WBCs called grannulocytes as well as w/ inflamation and other actions.

Back 846

#

Front 847

# Old erythrocytes are destoryed in the spleen.

Back 847

#

Front 848

# Blymphocytes, Invading bacteria, and proteins discarded by tissue cells can be found in lymph node.

Back 848

#

Front 849

# Type B negative blood carries B antigens and not the Rh factor. Type B negative blood makes antibodies that will only attach A antigens and Rh antigens.

Back 849

#

Front 850

# Immunoglobulins, or antibodies, are involved in the humoral immune system, or the B cell system.

Back 850

#

Front 851

# ANTIBODY: think B cells; CELL MEDIATED IMMUNITY: think T cells

Back 851

#

Front 852

# Stomach acid plays a role in nonspecific innate immunity.

Back 852

#

Front 853

# Humor immunity is specific and acquired.

Back 853

#

Front 854

# "Swollen glands" are actually swollen lymph nodes that are buldging w/ immune cells gearing up to fight the invasion.

Back 854

#

Front 855

# Spleen destorys old, worn out red blood cells.

Back 855

#

Front 856

# Hemolytic anemia can result from abnormalities of the RBCs that make them fragile and more susceptible to rupture when processed by the spleen.

Back 856

#

Front 857

# Neither actin (or thin filament) nor myosin (the thick filament) changes its length during muscular contraction, instead the proportion of actin and myosin overlap increases.

Back 857

#

Front 858

# Loss of ATP would prevent the myosin from releasing from actin.

Back 858

#

Front 859

# Muscle cause movement by contracting, bringing origin ainsertion closer together, usually by moving insertion closer together.

Back 859

#

Front 860

# Neurons cause contractions in muscles, not tendons.

Back 860

#

Front 861

# All muscles will need more energy and protein if they are used rigorously.

Back 861

#

Front 862

# Human mature muscle cells don't divide.

Back 862

#

Front 863

# Tendons connect muscle to bone.

Back 863

#

Front 864

# Ligaments connect bone to bone.

Back 864

#

Front 865

# Peristalsis is a fctn of smooth muscle only.

Back 865

#

Front 866

# Skeletal muscle may assist in venous blood movement and lymph fluid movement.

Back 866

#

Front 867

# Peristalsis is a smooth muscle activity and smooth muscle is innervated by the autonomic NS.

Back 867

#

Front 868

# Skeletal muscle are innervated by the somatic NS (ie. Diaphragm, knee jerk reflex, conduction in cardiac).

Back 868

#

Front 869

# Smooth muscle are innervated by the autonomic NS (ie. Peristalsis of gastrointestinal tract).

Back 869

#

Front 870

# Vasodilation of skin => smooth muscle must be relaxed in order to dilate the vessels.

Back 870

#

Front 871

# Cartilage doesn't contain nerves.

Back 871

#

Front 872

# Synovial fluid acts as a lubricant, decreasing friction btw the ends of the bones as they move.

Back 872

#

Front 873

# Bone cells receive circulation to keep them adequately hydrated, they don't need synovial fluid for this purpose.

Back 873

#

Front 874

# Ligaments attach bone to bone.

Back 874

#

Front 875

# Tendons attach bone to muscle.

Back 875

#

Front 876

# Yellow bone marrow is usually found in the medullary cavity of long bones; NOT in compact bone.

Back 876

#

Front 877

# Hydroxy apatite is made up of calcium and phosphate in a cmpd that includes hydroxyl groups as well.

Back 877

#

Front 878

# Bone acts as a storage place for phosphate and calcium.

Back 878

#

Front 879

# Spongy bone contains the blood stem cells important for blood cell synthesis.

Back 879

#

Front 880

# Yellow bone marrow and Fat storage is in long bones.

Back 880

#

Front 881

# Liver and spleen store RBCs.

Back 881

#

Front 882

# A dihybrid cross iw when 2 individuals that are hybrids at 2 different genes are crossed. Ie. AaBb x AaBb.

Back 882

#

Front 883

# Sexlinked traits occur on the X or Y chromsone. The X and Y chromosomes are NOT homologous.

Back 883

#

Front 884

# Color blindness is a sexlinked recessive trait. Womaen is born colorblind w/ certainty her father and son are colorblind. Cannot say for sure that her mom is colorblind b/c her mom could have been just a carrier.

Back 884

#

Front 885

# Types of isolateion (geographic, seasonal, behaviroal) lead to speciation (2 "migratory" birds that rest on different islands off the coast of england are not geographically isolated)

Back 885

#

Front 886

# r-strategy is more efficeint whenprevailing conditions are govcerned by density independent factors such as harsh environemtn, short seasons, etc; commercial predation methods have similar effects. Better able to wistand massive predators b/c they produce so many more ofspring than they neded to contienue the species.

Back 886

#

Front 887

# k strategists are better when prevailing conditions are governed by density dependent factors such as limited resources. Can better exploit limited sources by specializing.

Back 887

#

Front 888

# Dark King Philip came over for good soup; GENUS SPECIES.

Back 888

#

Front 889

# Prokaryotes were the earliest to evolve on earth (not anything else!)

Back 889

#

Front 890

# Life originated in an atomosphere with little or no oxygen.

Back 890

#

Front 891

# Taxonomy of humans: animalia (kingdom); chordata (phylum); mammalian (class); primata (order); homididae (family); homo sapiens (genus species)

Back 891

#

Front 892

# If the 1st living organism on earth were hetertrophs, they probably got their energy from eating naturally formed organic molecules.

Back 892

#

Front 893

# Catabolism refers to pathways in which larger molecules are broken down into smaller parts.

Back 893

#

Front 894

# Anabolism refers to pathways in which smaller molecules are built into larger molecules (think anabolic steroids that are used to build muscle).

Back 894

#

Front 895

# Nucleic acd degradation refers to breakdown of DNA and RNA into nucleotides (DOESN'T HAVE TO DO W/ PROTEIN).

Back 895

#

Front 896

# Fatty acid catabolism refers to breakdown of fatty acids into acetyl CoA.

Back 896

#

Front 897

# The end product of amino acid degradation is urea, which means that ammonia must feed into the urea cycle. The concentraiton of ammonia in the blood would become elevated and potentially toxic if one of the enzymes involved in the urea cycle was defective.

Back 897

#

Front 898

The catabolism of amino acids produces ammonia. Therefore, after a protein rich meal, would you expedct a build-up of ammonia in the lumen of the small intestine?

Back 898

No, b/c the ammonia is porduced inside individual cells, not within the lumen of the small intestine.

Front 899

# The greater the number of conjugated bonds in a moelcule, the more strongly electrons in excited states will be stabilized. Thus, the more conjugated a moelcule, the lower the frequency and the longer the wavelength that will excite it. Benzene, with only three dobule bonds, requires absorption of quite high energy light, higher than for colored compounds discussed in the passage. In fact, the light required to excite benzene electrons is in teh UV range, so no color is produced when benzene absorbs light, and benzene is colorless.

Back 899

#

Front 900

Many crustaceans produce a blue or green carotene-protein complex. What is the most likley cause of the color change from green to orange when a lobster is boiled.

Back 900

The protein is separated from the carotenoid pigment.

Front 901

# Conjguated bonds produce color… Four conjguated bonds bonds produces a color… however, if there are three conjugated bonds (or even in two sets of three conjguated bonds), its also less likely to be colored.

Back 901

#

Front 902

# The color producing quality of conjugated polyenes is attributable to resonance. Resonance is responsible for reducing the frequency of light needed to excite an electron - that is, raise it to a higher energy, antibonding orbital. Resonance reduces the amnt of energy needed, bringing the freq into the visible spectrum.

Back 902

#

Front 903

# For fisher projection, put the lowest priority group in the verticle position to find R or S.

Back 903

#

Front 904

# Epididymis: a group of coiled tubes sitting on top of the seminiferous tubules in the male reproductive tract.

Back 904

#

Front 905

# Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubuelsa nd mature and acquire motility in the epididymis. Spermed are stored in the epididymis until ejaculation.

Back 905

#

Front 906

# Prostate gland secretes an alkaline milky fluid that protects the sperm from the acidic conditions in the famel reproductive tract.

Back 906

#

Front 907

# During ejaculation, sperm traveles thru the epididymis, through the vas deferens, and thru te urethra, which opens to the outside from the tip of thepenis.

Back 907

#

Front 908

# Vagina and urethraa are separate openings in the female.

Back 908

#

Front 909

The structure that plays a role in both th emale excretory and male reporductive systems, but in the fame excretory system only is the urethra.

Back 909

#

Front 910

A particular rxn, R-Br + Br*- => R-Br* +Br-, is always accompanies by inversion. If this rxn is carried out on an optically pure sample of a chrical cmpd, which of the following statements will be true?

Back 910

The rate of Br* incorporation is half the rate of racemization. Each molecule thus inverted "cancelsout" one of the molecules that still has the old configuration; thus each inversion leads to the racemization of two molecules of alkyl halid. So the rate of radioactive bromide incorporation is equal to half of the rate of racemization.

Front 911

# Spermatogonia undergo mitosis to produce diploid cells called primary spermatocytes.

Back 911

#

Front 912

# SPERMATID is NOT a diploid cell; it's haploid.

Back 912

#

Front 913

# In famels, a diploid cell called a primary oocyte undergoes the first meiotic dividsion to yeild two haploid cells: a polar body and a secondary oocyte. The secondary oocyte undergoes the 2nd meitoic dividsion to produce 2 more haploid cells: a mature ooxyte, or ovum, and another polar body.

Back 913

#

Front 914

# During fertilization, an ovum and sperm fuse; two haploid cells fuse to form a signel diploid cell called a zygote.

Back 914

#

Front 915

Beatrice (a carrier) had married a hemophiliac and had a son, what is the probability that the son would have been a hemophiliac?

Back 915

50%; remember, if it's a sun, then the father must have donated a Y chromosome (where homophilia isn't found)

Front 916

# During the G1 phase, the cell undergoes intense biochemical acitivity.

Back 916

#

Front 917

# During the S phase, or synthesis phase, the nuclear DNA replciates.

Back 917

#

Front 918

# During the G2 phase, the nuclear DNA condenses and the structures used during mitosis beging to assemble.

Back 918

#

Front 919

# During the M phase, or mitotic phase, mitosis occurs.

Back 919

#

Front 920

# The nuclear genome is comprised of double-helical DNA that codes for mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.

Back 920

#

Front 921

# Mitochondrial genome is so small compared to that of the nucleus, that almost every nitrogen base has to code for a product, the mitochondrial genome doesn't have any DNA to waste.

Back 921

#

Front 922

# Obligate anaerobes produce ATP via fermentation, which includes both glycolysis and the reactions necessary to regenerate the NAD+ necessary for glycolysis to continue. Fermentation leads to a neg production of 2 ATP; this ATP is generated during glycolysis.

Back 922

#

Front 923

(T/F) In a paternity case the mother has type A+ blood and her son has type O- blood. If the husband has type B+ blood, the hustband could be the father.

Back 923

True; because since Rh is dominant, don’t know if they are recessive for Rh.

Front 924

# Rh immunity requires prior sensitization.

Back 924

#

Front 925

# Iron pills are often given to pregnant women as an iron supplement to combat the anemia associated with pregnancy. Anemia is due to the excessive circulatory demands exacted by the fetus and the placenta.

Back 925

#

Front 926

# Cholesterol is the precursor steroid molecule from which most other steroids are synthesized.

Back 926

#

Front 927

# Sex homrones - testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone - are all steroid hormones modifed from cholesterol.

Back 927

#

Front 928

# Adrenal cortex is a gland that secretes a fmaily of steroid hormones called corticosteroids. Two main types of corticosteroids are the mineralcorticoids (such as aldosterone) and the glucocorticoids (such as cortisol).

Back 928

#

Front 929

# Adrenal medulla secretes the hormone epinephrine in sresponse to any type of stress -- good or bad. Epi, along with norepi, are compounds called catechnolamines and are synthesized from the amino acid tyrosinde by chromaffin cells in the adrenal medulla.

Back 929

#

Front 930

# Glycolysis is a series of reactions tha tlead to the oxidative breakdown of glucose into pyruvate. These reactions occur in the cytoplasm and resuld in the production of two NADH and a net gain of 2 ATP.

Back 930

#

Front 931

# In the absence of oxygen (anaerobic conditions), the pyruvate is reduced to lactate; it undergoes this fermentation step so that NAD+ can be generated.

Back 931

#

Front 932

# In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is oxidized to release the considerable energy still stored in its chemical bonds. The pyruvate is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondrial matrix. The oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate into acetyl coa is catlayzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex; one NADH is generated during the formatino of acetyl CoA. Next the acetyl group form the acetyl CoA combined with oxaloacetate, forming citrate. Through a complicated series of rxns, the citrate is completely oxidized, two moelcules of CO2 are relassed, and NADH, FADH2, and ATP are generated.

Front 933

# All of the moelcules of NADH and FADH2 generated during glycolysis, pyruvate decarboxylation, and the TCA cycle, transfer their high potential electrons to a series of carrier molecules located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. A series of redox rxns is coupled w/ phosphorylation of ADP; this is known as oxidative phosphorylation. As the electrons are trasnfered from carrier to carrier, free ernergy is released whcih is then used to produce ATP.

Front 934

# The final carrier of the electron transport chain, cytochorme a3, passes its electrons t othe final electron acceptor, moeclule oxygen, or O2. Oxygen picks up a pair of hydrogen ions, forming water.

Back 934

#

Front 935

# A peak at 2850cm^-1 is characterisitc of the C-H stertch of an alkyl group.

Back 935

#

Front 936

# A phenol group would produce a broakd peak somewhere between 3600 and 3200 cm^-1.

Back 936

#

Front 937

# Whenever you look at the IR specturm of an organic compound, remember that there will always be some kind of peak or peaks btw 2800 and 3300cm^-1 that simply due to the carbon backbone- alkane, alkene, alkyne, aromatic, or mixtures of all of these.

Back 937

#

Front 938

# Both carboxyl and aldehyde group would have same peak at 1700. For aldehyde, they will also produce two characteristic peaks in the range of 2720 and 2820 cm^-1 called Fermi doublets.

Back 938

#

Front 939

# If there were an alcohol, specturm would contain a broad peak at about 3350 to 3250 cm^-1 which is characteristic of a hydroxyl group.

Back 939

#

Front 940

# TERMINOLOGY: an electrophilic aromatic substition may look like addition but you may actually be substituting for a hydrogen!

Back 940

#

Front 941

# The nucleolus is the organelle responsible for ribosomal RNA synthesis.

Back 941

#

Front 942

# Pancreas functions both as an endocrine gland and an exocrine gland. As an endocrine gland, the pancreas secretes thre ehormones: insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin (suppresses both insulin and glucagon secretion).

Back 942

#

Front 943

# Thryoid hormone is involved in the regulation of metabolic rate.

Back 943

#

Front 944

# As an exocrine gland, the pancreas secretes enzymes that are involved in protein, fat, and carbohydrase digestion; all of its exocrine products are secreted into the small intestine.

Back 944

#

Front 945

# Phenols are appreciably acidic so they are quite soluble in aqueous NaOH. Alcohols, including benzyl alcohol, are NOT acidic and won't be soluble in aqueous sodium hydroxide.

Back 945

#

Front 946

# The complete catabolism of a mole of glucose yields a net of 36 moles of ATP. The glycolytic portion of this pathway, however, yields only a net of 2 moles of ATP.

Back 946

#

Front 947

# B-cells are the antibody producing components of the imune system.

Back 947

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Front 948

# Immune system refers to a group of nonsepcific and specific defense mechanisms mediaetd by specailized cells, such as B-cells, T-cells, and macrophages, that travel through the body via the circulatory system.

Back 948

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Front 949

# Conformational isomers arise by the rotation around a single bond, not a double bond.

Back 949

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Front 950

# PTH increases blood Ca2+ concentraiton by promoting its removal from bone and it's release into the bloodstream. PTH also decreasing the excretion of Ca2+ from the kidney and converts vitamin D3 into its activity form, which stimulates the abosrption of Ca2+ in the intestine.

Back 950

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Front 951

# The heart is delivered its own supply of oxygenated blood via the coronary artieries which branch off the aorta.

Back 951

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Front 952

# Nonpolar compounds (eg. O2) diffuse easily through the cell membrane.

Back 952

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Front 953

# If the student's receptors for the sensation of "hot" pain had been served, then the studen twould have felt no pain, but would have immediately removed his hand from the hot plate. The sensation of pain is the result of an impulse being transmitted to the brain's sensory cortex via a sensory receptor and sensory neuron. If one of these pathways were served at any point, the impulse would not be sent to the braine, and the sensation of pain would not be felt.

Back 953

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Front 954

# The withdrawl reflex in response to hot pain is a reflex arc of two synapses: a sensory neuron synapses with an interneuron and the interneuron synapses with a motor neuron.

Back 954

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Front 955

# Chlorination of butane results in the formation of 1-chlorobutane and 2-chlorobutane since butane possesses two types of hydrogen that can be substituted (Fmember reactivity: F>Cl>Br>I)

Back 955

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Front 956

# Cellular proto-oncogenes often become tumorigenic via a point mutation that leads to the formatin of a defective protein.

Back 956

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Front 957

# FSH stimulates the maturation of an ovarian follicle during a typical menstrual cycle.

Back 957

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Front 958

# During pregnancy, the menstrual cycle is inhibited b/c progesterone, which is secreted by the corpus luteum during the 1st trimester of pregnancy and secreted by the placenta during the remainder of the pregnancy, inhibitws FSH ==> CONCENTRATION OF FSH DURING PREGNANCY IS VERY LOW.

Back 958

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Front 959

# Both LH and FSH are released by the anterior pituitary under the influence of their respective hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing factors. However, male and female hormones differe in their pattern of release and physiological function. In males, the release of LH and FSH is relatively constant b/c they stimulate two continuous processes: testosterone synthesis and spermatogenesis. In females, the release of LH and FSH is strictly cyclical.

Back 959

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Front 960

# In females, prior to ovulation, FSH and LH secretion continuously increase; the increase in FSH stimulates follicale development and the increase in LH stimulates the development of the corpus luteum following ovulation. The secretion of both hormones drops sharply following ovulatoin ad doesn't begin to rise again until the onset of the next menstrual cycle.

Back 960

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Front 961

# Cocci = spherical; bacilli = rodlikel spirochetes/spirilla = helical.

Back 961

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Front 962

# Enterokinase: secreted by glands of the samll intestine. Converts trypsinogen to its active form trypsin.

Back 962

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Front 963

# Trypsin converts chymotrypsinogen to its active form, chymotrypsin.

Back 963

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Front 964

# Peroxisomes are organelles that contain enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to xoygen, producing hydrogen peroxide. Through these rxns, peroxisomes detoxify alcohol and other harmful cmpds in the liver, and break down fats into smaller molecules that can be used for cellular respiration.

Back 964

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Front 965

# Pepsin is the protein-digesting enzyme secreted by the gastric glands of the stomach.

Back 965

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Front 966

# Insufficient vitamin D activity would reduce the ability of the body to absorb ingested calcium from the small intestine.

Back 966

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Front 967

# Activated vitamin D acts on the small intestine to stimulate the absorption of calcium into the bloodstream. The inclusion of vitamin D in calcium supplements would ensure that vitamin D is present in the body to help promote this absorption.

Back 967

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Front 968

# vitamin D is nonpolar and that it can be obtained through the action of ultraviolet rays on the skin. Nonpolar molecules tend to be lipid-soluble rather than water-soluble, and exposure to ultraviolet rays tends to be less in northern climates than in tropical climates. Of the choices given, a child who has a dietary deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins and lives in a northern climate would be most likely to develop rickets.

Back 968

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Front 969

# Removal of the parathyroid gland would lead to hypocalcemia, a condition of low blood calcium, resulting from the lack of parathyroid hormone. This would cause increased neuromuscular excitability because of the change in membrane potential, which under normal physiological conditions, is partially kept in balance with extracellular calcium. Typically, the person would eventually die from severe respiratory muscle spasms.

Back 969

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Front 970

# Because an initial immune response to a specific antigen usually takes longer and is weaker than subsequent responses to the same antigen, a particular patient may not have a severe reaction to a specific antibody until after multiple exposures.

Back 970

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Front 971

# Cell adhesion is required for migration to occur. The neutrophils containing these particular point mutations can still migrate through the endothelium. This implies that the neutrophils can still bind to the endothelial cells.

Back 971

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Front 972

# The kinetically controlled product is formed faster than the thermodynamically controlled product because the energy of activation for the formation of the kinetically controlled product is lower.

Back 972

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Front 973

# The thermodynamically controlled product is the one that is formed under equilibrium conditions and is more stable.

Back 973

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Front 974

# Rinsing the crystals with cold water will wash away the impurities soluble in cold water.

Back 974

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Front 975

# The reduced flow of blood through the renal arteries due to the clamps would cause a decrease in glomerular blood pressure. The kidneys respond to this drop in pressure by activating the renin–angiotensin system of hormones. This increases the amount of sodium and water that is reabsorbed by the kidneys, therefore increasing blood volume and pressure.

Back 975

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Front 976

# Enhanced activity of smooth muscles in blood vessels would cause vasoconstriction.

Back 976

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Front 977

# The knee-jerk reflex is a simple monosynaptic stretch reflex. A tap to the tendon that connects the quadriceps to the patella activates a sensory neuron that directly synapses with a motor neuron in the spinal cord, causing the quadriceps to contract.

Back 977

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Front 978

# Filtrate is formed as fluid passes from the glomerular capillaries through the glomerular membrane into the Bowman’s capsule. This region of the nephron is known as the glomerulus.

Back 978

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Front 979

# Phagocytosis requires that the cell change shape dramatically as it surrounds and engulfs large extracellular particles. Microtubules are one of the cytoskeletal elements that help determine cell shape. This function relies on the ability of the microtubules to disassemble and reorganize. The drug colchicine inhibits microtubule reorganization and would therefore inhibit phagocytosis of uric acid crystals by leukocytes.

Back 979

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Front 980

# The passage states that uric acid is formed by the breakdown of purines to xanthine, a uric acid precursor. Guanine is one type of purine that is found in cells.

Back 980

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Front 981

# The passage indicates that the patient produces the normal amount of PRPP synthetase, but its activity in vivo is 3 times the normal level. However, PRPP synthetase purified from the patient does not show this increased enzymatic activity in vitro. The fact that the enzyme binds the substrate and converts it to product at normal levels in vitro suggests that the active site of the enzyme has not been altered, but rather that an allosteric site on the enzyme has been affected. The mutant PRPP can most likely bind an intracellular molecule at an allosteric site, which changes the shape of the enzyme, enhancing its activity. This activity-enhancing molecule most likely is not present in the in vitro reaction mix.

Back 981

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Front 982

# For C13 NMR spectroscopy: The carbon of the carbonyl group appears at approximately 160–170 ppm.

Back 982

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Front 983

When glycerol reacts with three different fatty acids, how many stereogenic centers does the product triacylglycerol contain?

Back 983

When glycerol reacts with three different fatty acids, only carbon 2 in the resulting triacylglycerol is attached to four different groups.

Front 984

Which of the following is the most plausible explanation for the fact that the saponification of the triacylglycerol in the passage resulted in four different fatty acid salts?

Back 984

If one of the R groups in the triacylglycerol contained a carbon–carbon double bond and if isomerization of the double bond occurred during the saponification reaction, four fatty acids would be obtained instead of three.

Front 985

A male taking excess testosterone may become infertile because of reduced spermatogenesis. According to Figure 2, this could result directly from:

Back 985

Figure 2 indicates that testosterone is part of a negative feedback loop that acts on the hypothalamus to prevent the release of GnRF. In the presence of testosterone, less GnRF would be present to stimulate the release of FSH from the pituitary gland, causing a decrease in FSH available to act on the Sertoli cells. Therefore, FSH is less able to promote and maintain spermatogenesis.

Front 986

# The mature ovum is the female gamete that has completed meiosis and contains the haploid number of maternally derived chromosomes. This makes it most analogous to spermatozoa, the mature male gametes that contain the haploid number of paternally derived chromosomes

Back 986

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Front 987

# Sertoli cells support and nourish the spermatocytes and promote the process of spermatogenesis. Spermatogenesis would not occur without Sertoli cells. The two hormones that directly stimulate Sertoli cells are FSH and testosterone.

Back 987

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Front 988

# The pancreas produces several proteolytic enzymes, which are released into the small intestine where they are converted to their active forms of trypsin, chymotrypsin

Back 988

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Front 989

# The heart and blood vessels both differentiate from the mesoderm.

Back 989

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Front 990

# ***Based on the information presented, the gene encoding UV-reflectance pigment could be on a sex chromosome or an autosome. The fact that the pigment is expressed in the dewlap, a structure found only in males, is not sufficient to eliminate any chromosome as the location of this gene.

Back 990

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Front 991

# Although many different types of adaptations may help an individual organism survive, they will not be passed on to the next generation unless the organism produces offspring, passing on the genes that cause the advantageous phenotype. To evolve by natural selection and become a general characteristic of the species, the genes that cause dewlaps to reflect UV light must become a significant portion of the gene pool, which will most likely occur if individuals with UV-reflective dewlaps produce more offspring than do individuals without them.

Back 991

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Front 992

# Within a sarcomere, the microfilament length remains stable. Because one end of the microfilament is anchored in the Z line, actin monomers are prevented from being added to or subtracted from that end. This rules out the possibility of treadmilling. Therefore, to retain a stable length, both ends of the microfilament must be capped.

Back 992

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Front 993

# During exocytosis of viral particles the plasma membrane goes through many distortions of its shape. This requires polymerization of microfilaments.

Back 993

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Front 994

What is the net volume of fresh air that enters the alveoli each minute, assuming that the breathing rate is 10 breaths/min, the tidal volume is 800 mL/breath, and the nonalveolar respiratory system volume (dead space) is 150 mL?

Back 994

The amount of air entering the lungs in a single breath, or tidal volume, is given as 800 mL/breath. Of that 800 mL only 650 mL reaches the alveoli per breath (800 mL of air inhaled minus 150 mL of nonalveolar respiratory volume). Therefore the net volume of air that reaches the alveoli each minute is equal to 650 mL/breath multiplied by 10 breaths/min, or 6500 mL.

Front 995

# One of the key differences between mitosis and meiosis occurs during their respective anaphases. During anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids are pulled apart at the centromeres, each becoming an independent chromosome in the two diploid daughter cells. During anaphase I of meiosis I, homologous pairs of chromosomes are separated into the two daughter cells. However, each chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined to each other at the centromere. It is not until anaphase II of meiosis II that the centromere is split and the sister chromatids separate.

Back 995

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