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52 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Attachment |
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What is attachment? |
Attachment is a strong,enduring, emotional two way bond between two people and impacts a child’sdevelopment. |
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What 4 behaviours are attachment categorised by? |
>seekingproximity—desire to be physically close>separation anxiety --- distress from being separated >pleasure when reunited ---observable joy when together again >secure base behaviour—awareness of where caregiver is and regular contactwith them |
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What is reciprocity? |
A two way or mutualinteraction between infant and caregiver where both respond to each others signals |
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What is interactional synchrony? |
Form of rhythmic interaction between mother and infant,mirroring actions, behaviour and emotions |
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What's a caregiver and infant interaction? |
-interactions between acaregiver and an infant are important to develop and maintain an attachmentbond |
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What are the different types of caregiver-infant interaction? |
>bodilycontact---physical interactions >mimicking ---imitation of caregivers actions >caregiverese---modified form of vocal language >reciprocity--- a two way or mutual interaction between infant andcaregiver, both respond to each other’s signals >interactional synchrony---form of rhythmic interaction between mother andinfant, mirroring actions, behaviour and emotions |
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Describe the research on caregiver-infant interactions |
*Meltzoff and Moore observed beginnings of interactionalsynchrony in infants of 2 weeks old*adult displayed 3 facial expressions eg sticking tongue out and child’sresponse was filmed by observers *ability to imitate serves as important building block for later socialdevelopment *Gusella et al conducted experiment about interaction *caregiver played with child normally and then put on a still face and wasunreactive *baby become distressed and upset and tried to regain caregivers attention *shows infant is active ppt of interaction |
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Evaluate the caregiver-infant research |
STRENGTHS: CONTROLLED PROCEDURES: -infant doesn’t know they’re being observed sono ppt effects -filmed from multiple angles -good validity GOOD RELIABILITY: - Many studies e.g Gusella demonstrates the same patterns of interaction - high reliability WEAKNESSES: WE ASSUME BEHAVIOUR: - Gratier (2003) -babies cannot talk so limited communication leads us toassume -we don’t know purpose of behaviour such as synchrony and reciprocity OBSERVATIONS DON'T TELL US PURPOSE - Feldman (2012) points out that interactional synchrony simply describes behaviour and doesn't tell us the purpose of the behaviour |
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Describe the stages of attachment formation? |
o Asocial (0 - 6 weeks). Very younginfants are asocial in that many kinds of stimuli, both social and non-social,produce a favourable reaction, such as a smile. o Indiscriminate attachments (6 weeks to 7 months). Infantsindiscriminately enjoy human company and most babies respond equally to anycaregiver. They get upset when an individual ceases to interact with them. From3 months infants smile more at familiar faces and can be easily comfortable bya regular caregiver. o Specific attachment (7 - 9 months) - Special preferencefor a single attachment figure. The baby looks to particular people forsecurity, comfort and protection. It shows fear of strangers (stranger fear)and unhappiness when separated from a special person (separation anxiety). Some babies show stranger fear and separation anxiety much morefrequently and intensely than others, but nevertheless they are seen asevidence that the baby has formed an attachment. This has usuallydeveloped by one year of age. o Multiple attachment (10 months +) - The baby becomesincreasingly independent and forms several attachments. By 18 months themajority of infants have form multiple attachments. |
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Describe the method and findings of Schaffer and Emerson's research |
METHOD: - 60 babies - 31 male, 29 female all from working class Glasgow families - Babies at home were visited one a month for year ( in first year) and once again at 18 months - They measured for separation anxiety and stranger anxiety FINDINGS: - Between 25-32 weeks old 50% babies showed signs of separation anxiety demonstrating a SPECIFIC ATTACHMENT - - Attachment tended to be to the caregiver who cared for and interacted most both the infant - By the age of 40 weeks 80% showed operation anxiety and 30% had multiple attachments |
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Evaluate the research on the stages of attachment |
STRENGTHS: EXTERNAL VALIDITY > Research done on families at home and not affected by observer LONGITUDINAL DESIGN >better internal validity as no ppt variables > Schaffer and emersons research WEAKNESSES: PROBLEM STUDYING ASSOCIAL STAGE > Young babies have poor co-ordiantion and are immobile thus hard to draw conclusions and observe them > Lacks reliability as child's feelings aren't highly social LIMITED SAMPLE CHARCTERISTICS > All families were from same district, same social class and same city thus a limitation |
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What is parent-infant interaction (multiple attachments)? |
-Where the babies form a secondary attachment to other family members- including the father -this was seen in 75% of the babies and shown by them walking away in protest from their fathers |
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Role of Father A01 |
-Not biologically equipped to form attachments - playmate rather than caregiver - Sensitive responsiveness |
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Describe and evaluate the role of the father? |
PRIMARY FATHER: - Fathers tend not to be the primary figure due to traditional society HOWEVER now more women are working and 9% of rather are single parents and therefore can be a primary figure - Fathers can be the primary attachment as Field (1978) showed it is down to the level of responsiveness you give the infant not the gender - Frodi et also showed that mens psychological response was the same as women and can be a primary attachment SECONDARY FATHER: - Grossman (2002) carried out a longitudinal study and showed that father attachments are less important - Fathers role still important and quality of attachment is to do with the quality of play - Geiger (1996) suggested that fathers are more playmates rater than caregivers due to children getting more excited to play when fathers approach - Hrdy- less able to detect low levels of distress- due to Women also have the hormone oestrogen which is linked with nurturing men do not have this and is therefore thought of that men are secondary figures - Biological determinism of role of man due to their biological makeup however, frodi argues male same responsiveness as female thus softer view of determinism more appropriate |
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Explain Lorenz's research |
Aim: To investigate imprinting of geese Procedure: -he set up anexperiment in which he divided some goose eggs randomly -half of the eggs hatched in their natural environment with their mother -the other half hatched in an incubator where they first saw Lorenz Findings: -he found that theincubator group followed Lorenz everywhere and the control group followed themother -even when they were mixed they continued to follow Lorenz of the mother -the process is known as imprinting in which when a bird species are mobilefrom birth, they attach to and follow the first moving thing they see -Lorenz identified a critical period in which they needed to do so e.g couple ofhours and if unsuccessful they attach to nothing |
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Whats the difference between a critical and sensitive period? |
CRITICAL: - The window of time in which a feature of behaviour e.g attachment must develop SENSITIVE: - The best time period within which attachments should form, though they can still form with some difficulty outside of this period |
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Explain Harlow's research |
Aim: To investigate the importance of contact comfort Procedure: -he tested the ideathat something soft serves the function of a mother -in one condition he gave some monkeys milk from a wire mother and in the otherhe gave them milk through a wire covered in cloth Findings: -he found the babymonkeys cuddled the soft object over the wire one despite which dispensed milk -they sought comfort from the cloth and showed contact comfort was moreimportant than food |
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Evaluate animal studies research |
STRENGTHS: THEORTEICAL VALUE > Harlow showed us that attachment doesn't develop through a mother feeding their child milk but instead contact comfort > Also showed us the importance of the quality of early relationships to help develop social development later in life PRACTICAL VALUE > Benefits to animals due to the use of imprinting to ensure survival of orphan lambs >For humans it means more effective farming techniques, increasing productivity WEAKNESSES GENERALISIBILITY TO HUMANS > Lorenz's mammalian imprinting is different to humans for example mothers who much more emotional care towards children >Also mammals can form attachments at any time whereas humans cannot > Cannot generalise to humans ETHICAL ISSUES > Harlow faced severe criticism due to giving the monkeys extreme suffering >Monkeys are quite human like so we feel the same pain thus again he was again criticised for his harshness on them |
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Describe the learning theory explanations of attachment |
FOOD - Hunger is a primary drive- we are initially motivated to eat to reduce this biological need - Attachment is a secondary drive- this is learned through association between the caregiver who gives FOOD and the satisfaction of the primary drive |
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What is cupboard love? |
When infants form an attachment with whoever feeds them |
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Apply classical conditioning to attachment |
- UCS = FOOD ---------------> UCR = pleasure - Before learning - UCS= FOOD + NS = caregiver -----> UCR= pleasure - During learning - CS = caregiver -------------> CR= pleasure - After learning |
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Apply operant conditioning to attachment |
- An infant will cry to reduce hunger - This sound is uncomfortable for the care-giver and thus will feed or cuddle the baby = Adult knows baby will stop crying when given food (NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT) - The caregivers behaviour is rewarding for the baby and therefore the baby knows if he cries he will get a reward ( POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT) therefore he repeats his behaviour - Attachment occurs through mutual reinforcement |
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Evaluate the learning theory explanations of attachment |
STRENGTHS:
ELEMENTS OF CONDITIONING STILL INVOLVED > Credible that association between the primary caregiver and the provision of comfort and social interaction is still what builds part of the attachment > Thus human development is affected by conditioning WEAKNESSES: ANIMAL RESEARCH > Animals studies show that attachments aren't formed from feeding > Lorenz's geese- imprinting > Harlows monkeys- contact comfort > Thus attachment doesn't develop as a result of FOOD HUMAN RESEARCH > Schaffer and Emerson showed that feeding does not appear to be and important factor in attachment > They showed that the primary attachment was with the person who looked after them the most rather than feeding them > Showing again a limitation of the learning theory IGNORES FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH ATTACHMENT > Early research on attachment suggests that the quality of attachment comes from Reciprocity an interactional synchrony ( ISABELLA ET AL) > the better these factors the better the primary attachment > Demonstrating the learning theory is a simplistic theory |
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What are the 6 key features of Bowlby's theory? |
Adaptive and innate Social releasers Critical period Secure base Monotropy and hierarchy Internal working model Continuity hypothesis |
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Explain the 6 different features |
Adaptive and innate - Survival - Adaptive behaviours - Reciprocal interaction Social releasers -Innate behaviours like crying and smiling designed to elicit adult responses. - triggers attachment CRITICAL PERIOD - sensitive rather than critical - 6 months ---> 2 1/2 years - sensitive period most sensitive ------> least sensitive -The period after birth in which babies are best adapted to form attachments. Secure Base - Protection - Explore the world - Safe haven Monotropy and hierarchy - Most important attachment - Provides the most sensitive responsiveness - top of Hierarchy of other attachments - called 'mother' doesn't have to biological though - 2 principles clarifying this: - law of continuity - more constant care is = better attachment - law of accumulated separation - every separation adds up - thus don't do it Internal working model - Mental representation of primary caregiver - important as it affects our future relationships as they carry our perceptions of what relationships are going to be like Continuity hypothesis - Consistency between early emotional experiences and later relationships |
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Evaluate Bowlby's theory of attachment |
STRENGTHS: SUPPORT FOR SOCIAL RELEASERS - Brazleton et al. (1975) - They noted that mothers and babies tookturns in beginning interactions and that bothimitated each other’s movements. - They called this interactional synchrony. - When the mothers ignored the babies they initially showed some distress but then curled up and lied motionless - supports significance of social infant behaviour SUPPORT FOR INTERNAL WORKING MODEL - Bailey et al. (2007) - They aimed to see if patterns of attachmentare passed from one generation to the next. - They interviewed 99 teenage mothers withone-year-old babies about their attachment totheir own mothers. - Showed that mothers who had a poor attachment with mothers when younger their children also had poor attachments with them - showing that attachment is passed through generations WEAKNESSES: MONOTROPY CRITICSM - Schaffer and Emerson (1964) - They suggested that children have multiple attachments with caregivers other than themother. E.g. father, grandparents, siblings TEMPERAMENT NOT CONSIDERED - Kagan (1982) - Temperament is the child's genetically influenced personality - Temperament researchers suggest that some babies are more anxious and some more sociable this may be the role that influences child's developing social behaviour rather than attachment |
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Describe Ainsworth aim and procedure of the strange situation |
Aim: > To measure the the security of attachment a child displays to a caregiver Procedure: -The experiment is set up in a small room with two way glass so the behavior of the infant can be observed covertly. - Infants were aged between 12 and 18 months. The sample comprised about 100 middle class American families. - Observed the behavior of the infant in a series of eight episodes lasting approximately 3 minutes each: (1) Mother, baby and experimenter (lasts less than one minute). (2) Mother and baby alone. (3) Stranger joins mother and infant. (4) Mother leaves baby and stranger alone. (5) Mother returns and stranger leaves. (6) Mother leaves; infant left completely alone.(7) Stranger returns. (8) Mother returns and stranger leaves. |
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Describe the 4 different behaviours Ainsworth was looking for |
1) Stranger anxiety 2) secure base 3) Separation anxiety 4) Reunion |
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Describe Ainsworth findings |
He was able to categorise the behaviours into 3 different types of attachment: TYPE A- Insecure avoidant: 20-25% - high willingness to explore - Low separation anxiety - Low stranger anxiety - Low reunion behaviour TYPE B- Secure Attachment: 60-75% - moderate willingness to explore - moderate separation anxiety - moderate stranger anxiety unless mum in room - moderate reunion behaviour TYPE C- Insecure Resistant: 3% - low willingness to explore - high separation anxiety - high stranger anxiety - low reunion behaviour |
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Describe the features of the 3 types of attachment |
TYPE A- Insecure avoidant: > Caregiver is rejecting, insensitive and pays less attention > ignores infant in play TYPE B- Secure Attachment: > Caregiver is sensitive, responsive, co-operative > they also interpret the infants signals correctly TYPE C- Insecure Resistant: > Caregiver is inconsistent who is occupied with routine activities > acts ambivalently to the child |
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Evaluate the strange situation |
STRENGTHS: GOOD VALIDITY: > Ward et al > Showed that infants with insecure resistant attachments were more likely to develop adult mental health problems > Strength as strange situation is strongly predictive of later development GOOD RELIABILITY > Bick et al > replicated the strange situation and used inter-rater reliability and agreed on 94% of the attachment type > strength as this shows that the attachment type can be generalised as any observer can identify the same thing WEAKNESSES: ETHICAL ISSUES > Ainsworth et al left infants in a room with stranger > at least 20% cried desperately during ep6 and thus gave the infants stress > Unethical POPULATION VALIDTY > Study only used american infants > thus sample is not representative of the wide pop and cannot be generalised > imposed etic |
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What are cultural variations? |
- The differences in the norms and values that exist between people in different groups e.g German parents are independent and most regularly are insecurely attached |
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Describe van Ijzendoorn's meta-analysis on cross cultural variations |
AIM: >To investigate the types of attachment across cultures and to see how the three main attachment styles applied. PROCEDURE: > Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) did not collect the data for this study, instead they analyzed data from other studies using a method called meta analysis. > Data from 32 studies in 8 different countries was analyzed. All the 32 studies used the strange situation procedure to study attachment. > Using a meta analysis they calculated the average percentage for the different attachment styles in each country. FINDINGS: >It was found that secure attachment was the most common type of attachment in all cultures. > The lowest percentage of secure attachments was shown in China, and the highest in Great Britain. >Results showed that individualistic countries that support independence such as Germany had high levels of anxious avoidant >whereas countries that are more culturally close (collectivist), such as Japan, had quite high levels of ambivalent resistant. |
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What is another study on cross cultural variation |
Grossman and Grossman: > found german infants tended to be classified as insecurely attached > this is because German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance between parents and children > children do not engage in proximity > seeking behaviour sin the SS thus insecurely attached |
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Evaluate the research on cross cultural variations |
ALTERNATE EXPLANATION: - Attachment is universal as it differs slightly between cultures > this supports bowlby's theory as he believed that the quality of attachment is influenced by the behaviour of the primary attachment figure towards the baby > therefore is this varies in cultural norms then we would expect variations between countries INTERNAL VALIDITY - LARGE SAMPLE MORE REPRESENTATIVE AND GENERALIST > reduces the chance of anomalous results WEAKNESSES METHOD OF ASSESSMENT IS BIASED: >imposed etic where the SS theory for one culture is tried to applied to another culture > for example in the SS a lack of separation anxiety and lack of pleasure in reunion indicates insecure attachment > However in Germany this behaviour may be seen as independent rather than avoidant and hence not a sign of insecurity LIMITED SAMPLES - SOME STUDIES HAD 18 STUDIES USA WHEREAS CHINA AND GB HAD 1 STUDY - NOT REPRESENTATIVE |
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What is maternal deprivation? |
The emotional and intellectual consequences of separation between a child and his /her mother. |
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What's the difference between separation, deprivation and privation? |
Separation = whena child is not physically with the primary attachment figure Deprivation= if an infant is physically separate from caregiver and is deprivedof continuous emotional care Privation= the failure to form any attachment |
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What was Bowlby's theory towards maternal deprivation? |
The critical period -Bowlby believedin the idea of a critical period (first 30 months) as a vital time for later development and if there is maternal deprivation during this period (egseparation & deprivation) then damage is inevitable. |
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What are the short term effects of deprivation? |
-protest e.gcrying, screaming, an outward reflection of child’s anger -despair, a calmer behaviour replaces protest and child comforts itself,internal anger -detachment, child responds to people again but warily, rejection of caregivercommon due to anger |
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What are the long term effects of deprivation? |
-Affectionlesspsychopathy - inability to experience guilt, show affection and anti-socialbehaviour which leads to: >delinquency and increased aggression due toinability to feel guilt so gets into trouble >poor relationships, inability to experienceemotion and empathy damages ability to develop relationships
-low IQ level |
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Describe Bowlby's 44 thieves experiment |
44criminal teenagers accused of stealing in sample Procedure: -all interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathyeg lack of affection, guilt or empathy for victims -families also interviewed to see if thieves had prolongedseparation from mother -a control group of no thieves but emotionallydisturbed people was set up to see how often maternal deprivationoccurred in non-thieves Findings: - 14 out of 44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths -from this 14, 12 of them had experienced separation frommothers in first 2 yrs of life -in control group only 2 out of 44 had experienced separation -showed that maternal deprivation in first 2 yrs caused affectionlesspsychopathy |
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Evaluate Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation |
STRENGTHS ANIMAL STUDIES TO SUPPORT: >Levy et al carried out study on baby rats by separating them from their mothers for a day and hefound that this had permanent effect on theirsocial development WEAKNESSES DEPRIVATION AND PRIVATION: >Rutter claimed Bowlbymuddled the two terms and when he was talking about deprivation he meantprivation POOR EVIDENCE: >Bowlby drew onsources of evidence from WW2 looking at orphaned children and how they developed yet this wasflawed evidence to look at because they went through traumatic experience and often had poor aftercare which could be factorsinfluencing later development NOT A CRTICIAL PERIOD: >study of Czech twins who were isolated from 18 months till 7 yrs togetherin a shed; despite deprivation in critical period theydeveloped normally after they were cared for by new loving parents >this suggests it’s not really a critical period but a sensitive one |
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What is institutionalisation? |
The effects of living in an institutional setting. This tends to result in the child adopting the riles and norms of the institution and and this can cause a loss of personal identity |
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What are the effects of institutionalisation? |
Disinhibitedattachment: -this is forming an attachment with anyone, showing attention seeking andclingy behaviour -it is likely that this behaviour stems from having too many carers and notseeing any of them for enough time to form a secure attachment Mentalretardation: -in Rutter’s study most showed signs of this however those adopted before 6months were able to catch up -therefore recovery to this can occur as long as adoption is before 6 months |
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Describe Rutters study on institutionalisation |
Rutter's study Procedure: -Rutter and colleaguescarried out a study in which they followed 165 romanian orphans who wereadopted by British parents -he assessed phsycial, cognitive and emotional development at ages 4,6,11 and15 yrs -he used a control group of 52 adopted british children as a comparison Findings: -first rutter found that when they first came to UK they gave signs of mentalretardation and malnourishment -in terms of intellectual development he found that IQ’s varied depending onthe age when they were adopted e.g: >adopted before 6 months = IQ of 102 >adopted after 6 months = IQ of 86 >adopted after 2 years = IQ of 77 -in terms of attachment he found that there was sig difference depending onwhether adopted before or after 6 months >those adopted after showed disinhibited clingy attachment |
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Evaluate the research into the effects of institutionalisation? |
STRENGTHS Real life application: >enhanced ourunderstanding of effects of institutionalisation >led to improvements in children care e.g homes now ensure less caregiversfor each child and instead a main one known as a key worker Fewer extraneous variables than other studies >There were many orphan studies before Rutters however these all had huge confounding participant variables e.g Trauma from past experiences > In this study it was possible to study it was possible to study without those confounding variables and thus have greater internal validity WEAKNESSES The long term effects are not clear: >studies byRutter and Zeanah show impacts on teenage development but it’s too soon to saywhether they were long or short term effects and whether further recovery is anoption>adulthood could bring different results Romanian orphanages are not generalisable: >it can beargued that the conditions of Romanian orphanages are unusual in comparison toother institutions and so results are ungeneralisable to other situations |
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How does the internal working model influence you relationships in life? |
This is the ideathat your own first experience of attachment allows you to form a template for future relationships based on what you are used to. For instance if you had asecure attachment and loving relationsip with your mother then you are likelyto form functional and healthy future relationships as that is what youunderstand a normal relationship to be. |
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Explain the influence of early attachment on childhood relationships? |
1) Friendships or peer relationships -studiesfound that those who are securely attached tend to be most popular and formhealthy relationships 2) Bullying - Myron-Wilson & Smith demonstrated through their longitudinal study that children with insecure resistant attachments where most likely to be the bullies and avoidant the ones bullied |
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Explain the influence of early attachment on Adult relationships? |
1) As a parent: -bailey et alstudy of 99 mothers with 1 year old babies assessed behaviour with child through SS and then interviewed aboutrelationship with their own mother they found that the babies attachment with the mothers was most of the time the same to their own mothers -supports internal working model 2) Relationships inadulthood/ romance:- EVAL -study carried outby Mccarthy looked at relationships of 40 women -it showed that those who are securely attached are most likely to form healthy and successful relationships -insecure avoidant were shown to find it difficult to address intimacy -insecure resistant were shown to be controlling/clingy to partners and foundit hard to keep friends |
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What is the 'Love Quiz'? |
Hazan & Shaver Procedure: - analysed 620 reposnes to quiz printed in an American local newspaper - quiz had 3 sections 1) assessed current or most important relationship 2) general love experiences 3) assessed attachment type by picking a which of three statements best described their feelings Findings: - 56% secure- most likely to have good and longer relationships - 25% avoidant- jealous and fear of intimacy - 19% resistant - patterns of attachment found in relationships |
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Evaluate the research that supports/challenges the internal working model and the effects of child and adult relationships |
STRENGTH RESEARCH - McCarthy supports internal working model supports that early relationships have an impact on later on relationships in life WEAKNESSES Problems ofvalidity from the assessment types: >eg usingquestionnaires in love quiz limits validity as people will lie/ make it up tosuit answer they want >also looking back to childhood experience is likely to lack validity aspeoples recall may be inaccurate Difference betweenassociation and causality: >studies assumea causal relationship between attachment type/ past and future relationshipsbut there can be other factors which affect it such as temperament and parentalstyles Influence of earlyattachment is exaggerated: >can be arguedthat Bowlby exaggerated role of attachments on development >it can be agreed that there is a high probability/ risk that attachmentwill be damaged but Clarke’s argue too pessimistic and argue influence isprobabilistic |
