Art History Final Bold Terms

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Bronze Age

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Copper is relatively abundant in Europe and Spain, objects fashioned in it are too soft to be functional and have a metaphoric use. However, bronze an alloy, or mix of copper and tin is a stronger substance with a wide variety of uses. This allowed them to make weapons such as swords and daggers. Tin that was required was scarce. Power bases shifted within communities as the resources needed to make bronze weren't widely available. Trade and intergroup contact increased.

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Aristocracy

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the classification of a group of people according to their ability, or economic or social status. This arose because of cities. When soomeone controls resources, someone is then below them and a hierarchy develops. Aristocracy - government by the best individuals or a small privileged class. social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals into divisions of power and wealth within a society. The term most commonly relates to the socio-economic concept of class, involving the "classification of persons into groups based on shared socio-economic conditions ... a relational set of inequalities with economic, social, political and ideological dimensions."

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Aegean Sea / Black Sea

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For the ancient Aegean peoples the sea provided an important link not only between the mainland and the islands but also to the world beyond. The people of Aegean were seafarers and their ports welcomed ships from other cultures around the Mediterranean. Shipwrecks provide a rich source of info about material culture of these ancient societies. Suggests peoples of Egypt and ancient Near East were important trading partners.

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Minoan Civilization

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Located on Crete which was economically self sufficient producing its own grains, olives, other fruits, and cattle and sheep. CAlled Minoan after the legend of Minos, a king who had ruled from the capital, Knossos. According to this legend, a half-man, half-bull moster called the Minotaur--son of the wife of king Minos and a bull belonging to the sea god Poseidon lived at Knossos in a maze called the Labrynth. To satisfy the Minotaur's appetite for human flesh, King Minos ordered the mainland kingdom of Athens to send a yearly tribute of 14 young men and women, a practice ended when Athenian hero Theseus killed the beast. Was destroyed by an erruption of a volcano.

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Crete / Knossos / Thera

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Crete largest of the Aegean islands economically self-sufficient, producing its own grains, olives, and other fruits, and cattle and sheep. With many safe harbours and a convenient location, Crete became a wealthy sea power, trading with mainland Greece, Egypt, and Near East thus acquiring the ores necessary for producing bronze. Knossos is the capital of Crete where he maze is located for the centaur. Political center of Minoan civilization and culture. Thera island located 69 miles north of Crete devestated by a volcano. Contributed to fall of the Minoan empire.

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Labyrinth

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A bull belonging to the sea god Poseidon lived at Knossos in a maze called the Labyrinth. The palance of Knossos was known as a labyrinth

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Cthonic and Celestial religions

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chthonic, of or relating to earth, particularly the Underworld. Chthonic figures in Greek mythology included Hades and Persephone, the rulers of the Underworld, and the various heroes venerated after death; even Zeus, the king of the sky, had earthly associations and was venerated as Zeus Chthonius. Oracles (prophecies) delivered through incubation (that is, whereby the inquirer slept in a holy precinct and received an answer in a dream) were believed to come from chthonian powers. In the symbolism and iconography of chthonic deities, snakes are often associated with such deities in world mythology; thus, divinities are often portrayed entwined with ... (100 of 102 words)

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Fresco

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A painting technique in which water based pigments are applied to a surface of wet plaster called buon fresco. The color is absorbed by the plaster, becoming a permanent part of the wall. Fresco secco is created b painting on dried plaster, and the color may flake off. Murals made by both these techniqyes are called frescos.

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Strict profile / composite view

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WE ONLY SEE FROM THE SIDE which gives us the most information.

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Composite view

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omposite view: convention of representation where part of figure is in profile & another part of same figure is shown frontally.

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Mycenaen

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Called it the walled complex of Mycenae the home of Agamemnon, legendary Greek king and leader of the Greek army that conquered the great city of Troy, as described in Homer's epic poem, the Illiad. Even today the monumental gateway to the citadel at Mycenae is an impressive reminder of the importance of the city. The walls were rebuilt three times each time stronger than the last and enclosing more space. The second wall enclosed the grave circle and was perced by two gates, the monumental Lion Gate on the west and a smaller secondary gate on the Northeast side. These walls were about 25 feet and nearly 30 feet high.

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Acropolis

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The citadel of ancient Greek city, located at its highest poiint and housing temples, a treasury and sometimes a royal palace. The most famous is the Acropolis in Athens.

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Corbeled Arch / corbeled vault

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Corbel, corbeling an early roofing and arching technique in which each course of stone projects slightly beyond the previous layer (a corbel) until the uppermost corbels meet. Results in a high almost pointed arch or vault. Corbeled vault--built up in regular courses, or layers, of ashlar--precsely cut blocks of stone, smoothly leaning inward and carefully calculated to meet in a single capstone that joins the sides and completes the strucute at the peak.

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Cyclopaean masonry

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A method of building using huge blocks of rough-hewn stone. Any large scale monumental building project that impresses by sheer size. Named after the Cyclops one eyed giants of legendary strength in Greek myths.

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Troy

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ny of the groups of aggressive seafarers who invaded eastern Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Cyprus, and Egypt toward the end of the Bronze Age. They were especially active in the 13th century BC. Though the extent and origin of the upheavals remain uncertain, Sea Peoples are believed responsible for the destruction of old powers such as the Hittite empire. The Egyptians waged two wars against them (1236 – 23 BC and c. 1198 – 66). The only major tribe to settle permanently in Palestine were the Peleset (i.e., Philistines).is best known for being the focus of the Trojan War described in the Greek Epic Cycle and especially in the Iliad, one of the two epic poems attributed to Homer. Metrical evidence from the Iliad and the Odyssey seems to show that the name Ἴλιον (Ilion) formerly began with a digamma: Ϝίλιον (Wilion). This was later supported by the Hittite form Wilusa. Besides the Iliad, there are references to Troy in the other major work attributed to Homer, the Odyssey, as well as in other ancient Greek literature. The Homeric legend of Troy was elaborated by the Roman poet Virgil in his Aeneid. The Greeks and Romans took for a fact the historicity of the Trojan War and the identity of Homeric Troy with the site in Anatolia. Alexander the Great, for example, visited the site in 334 BC and made sacrifices at tombs there associated with the Homeric heroes Achilles and Patroclus

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Xenophobia

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enophobia is an irrational, deep-rooted fear of or antipathy towards foreigners.[1] It comes from the Greek words ξένος (xenos), meaning "stranger," "foreigner" and φόβος (phobos), meaning "fear."[2] Xenophobia can manifest itself in many ways involving the relations and perceptions of an ingroup towards an outgroup, including a fear of losing identity, suspicion of its activities, aggression, and desire to eliminate its presence to secure a presumed purity.[3] Xenophobia can also be exhibited in the form of an "uncritical exaltation of another culture" in which a culture is ascribed "an unreal, stereotyped and exotic quality".[4]An irrational fear of members of a certain race foreign to one's own, THey believe anyone not of their own race is a threat.

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iron Age

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n archaeology, the Iron Age is the prehistoric period in any area during which cutting tools and weapons were mainly made of iron or steel. The adoption of this material coincided with other changes in society, including differing agricultural practices, religious beliefs and artistic styles.

The Iron Age is the last principal period in the three-age system for classifying ancient societies, preceded by the Bronze Age and the Stone Age. Its dates and context vary depending on the geographical region. The Iron Age in each area ends with the beginning of the historical period, i.e. the local production of ample written sources. Thus, for instance, the British Iron Age ends with the Roman Conquest.
Iron in its natural form is very soft, and is not useful for tools unless it is combined with carbon to make steel. The percentage of carbon determines important characteristics of the final product, the lower the carbon content the softer the product, the higher the carbon content the harder the product. During the Iron Age, the best tools and weapons were made from steel, an alloy consisting of iron with a carbon content between 0.02% and 1.7% by weight. Steel weapons and tools were nearly the same weight as those of bronze, but stronger. However, steel was difficult to produce with the methods available, and sometimes a lower carbon iron called wrought iron was used.[8] Many techniques have been used to create steel, Mediterranean ones differ dramatically from African ones, for example. Sometimes the final product is all steel, sometimes techniques like case hardening were used to make cutting edges stronger.
nodgrass[9][10] suggests that a shortage of tin, as a result of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BCE, forced people to seek an alternative to bronze. That many bronze items were recycled and made from implements into weapons during this time is evidence of this. With more widespread use of iron, the technology needed to produce workable steel was developed and the price lowered. As a result, even when tin became available again, iron was now the metal of choice for tools and weapons and was cheap enough that it could replace bronze.[11]

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dialectic / agon

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ialectic (also called dialectics or the dialectical method) is a method of argument, which has been central to both Indic and Western philosophy since ancient times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular by Plato in his Socratic dialogues. Dialectic is based on a dialogue between two or more people who may hold differing views, yet wish to pursue truth by seeking agreement with one another.[1] This is in contrast to debate, in which two or more people hold differing views and wish to persuade or prove one another wrong (and thus a jury or judge is needed to decide the matter), or rhetoric, which is a relatively long oration conducted by a single person, a method favored by the Sophists.[2] Different forms of dialectical reason have emerged in the Indosphere and in the West, as well as during different eras of history (see below). Among the major forms of dialectic reason are Socratic, Hindu, Buddhist, Medieval, Hegelian, Marxist, and Talmudic. The aim of the dialectical method is resolution of the disagreement through rational discussion,[7][8] and ultimately the search for truth. One way to proceed — the Socratic method — is to show that a given hypothesis (with other admissions) leads to a contradiction; thus, forcing the withdrawal of the hypothesis as a candidate for truth (see also reductio ad absurdum). Another way of trying to resolve a disagreement is by denying some presupposition of both the contending thesis and antithesis; thereby moving to a third (syn)thesis or "sublation". However, the rejection of the participants' presuppositions can be resisted, which might generate a second-order controversy.[9]

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Thesis / antithesis / synthesis

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he origin of the triad "thesis → antithesis → synthesis" can be traced to Heraclitus. According to Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, the dialectic triplicity was intuitively rediscovered by Kant, but the latter and his successors (such as Fichte) left it detached from phenomena and uncomprehended.[1][2] In the Phenomenology of Spirit, Hegel applies the dialectic triad of Spirit's evolution to phenomena and uses the term "antithesis" many scores of times.[3]

The triad represents the two-stage condensation from the abstract to the concrete:

1. The thesis is an abstract unity.
2. The antithesis is the condensation of the abstract unity into a concrete multiplicity.
3. The synthesis is the condensation of the concrete multiplicity into a concrete unity.
0. Having reached the critical threshold (measure), the synthesis dissolves into a new thesis.

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Fate

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The unknown ; the action of the world, unconscious, irrational, indifferent to human concerns. Terrifying yet exhilarating cycle of creation and destruction. Personified by the gods Poseidon and especially Dionysus, the god of mystical union with the world.

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Reason

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The human ability to understand oneself and the world. Personified by the gods Athena and especially Apollo the god of civilization, balance, and order.

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The hero

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The human being who meets the challenge of the world who confronts the unknown with reason and courage. The hero's virtue is courage. His fault, hubris is pride, the irrational elan arising out of triumph. The hero's fate is tragedy but the hero's reward is fame.

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Dionysos

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The god of mystical union with the world. The dionysiac way--mystical oneness with the world, the human being is a dancer, embracing the giveness f life in all its multiplicity; a destroyer of boundaries, and explorer of chaos. The id, passion dominates the other parts of the soul. emotion, darkeness, dreaming, madness, chaos, ecstacy.

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Apollo

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The go of civilization, balance and order. The apollonian way--the ability to understand oneself and the world. The human being is a maker, a fabricator, a giver of forms, an erector of boundaries, a molder and manipulator of the environment. The superego is dominant. Reason, freedom, ingellect, clarity, moderation, light, consciousness is there.

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Polis/ poleis / acropolis

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A polis, plural poleis, is a city, a city-state and also citizenship and body of citizens. When used to describe Classical Athens and its contemporaries, polis is often translated as "city-state."

The word originates from the ancient Greek city-states, which developed during the Archaic period, the ancestor of city, state and citizenship, and persisted (though with decreasing influence) well into Roman times, when the equivalent Latin word was civitas, also meaning 'citizenhood', while municipium applied to a non-sovereign local entity. The term city-state which originated in English (alongside the German Stadtstaat) does not fully translate the Greek term. The poleis were not like other primordial ancient city-states like Tyre or Sidon, which were ruled by a king or a small oligarchy, but rather a political entity ruled by its body of citizens. The traditional view of archaeologists, that the appearance of urbanization at excavation sites could be read as a sufficient index for the development of a polis was criticised by François Polignac in 1984[1] and has not been taken for granted in recent decades: the polis of Sparta for example was established in a network of villages.The term polis which in archaic Greece meant city, changed with the development of the governance center in the city to indicate state (which included its surrounding villages), and finally with the emergence of a citizenship notion between the land owners it came to describe the entire body of citizens. The ancient Greeks didn't refer to Athens, Sparta, Thebes and other poleis as such; they rather spoke of the Athenians, Lacedaemonians, Thebans and so on. The body of citizens came to be the most important meaning of the term polis in ancient Greece.
AcropolisThe citadel of an ancient Greek city, located at its highest point and housing temples, a treasury, and sometimes a royal palace. The most famous is the Acropolis in Athens.

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democracy

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Athenian democracy was established as a result of continuous reorganizations. The name comes from demos-people and kratos-power, so litarally power of the people. Apart from many smaller changes, it was mainly based on the opportunity for all citizens over 20 to take part in governing the country. Athenian democracy also had weak sides, like limited possibility of taking part in the Assembly of Citizens for people living outside Athens. Peasants, especially during harvest, could not take part in voting because of distance they would have to cover to vote. Solution of this problem was delegating a representative from each village who would take care of interests of food producers.

The pace of making decisions was critisised (by Plato and Aristotle) because it was of high importance in those turbulent times. In a situation when the state was in danger, despite the existence of the strategist's office, the most important decisions had to be made in the Assembly which was not always reasonable.

One of the main advantages of Athenian democracy was that the archon and his eight assistants were elected anually. It was possible to prolong the rule for the next term but in case of any abnormalities a quick change of government took place.

The biggest advantage of democracy in polis was the general possibility of taking part in public life for all free citizens. Undoubtedly it helped the citizens of Athens to broaden their minds, their cultural awareness and, what was probably most important, to develop intelectually.

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Plato's analysis of the soul

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Plato says there are three parts of the soul, each corresponds to a virtue.
Reason is wisdom,
Spirit is courage
Appetite is temperance (moderation, balance)
When courage is tempered by wisdom, justice prevails.

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Citizen Soldier / hoplite / phalanx

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he hoplite was a heavily armoured, spear-armed citizen-soldier, primarily drawn from the middle classes. Fighting in the tight phalanx formation maximised the effectiveness of the armour, large shields and spears carried by the hoplites, aiming to present an impenetrable wall of men. Warfare in the archaic period seems to have mostly occurred of small-scale, set-piece battles between very similar phalanxs from the city-states in conflict. Since the soldiers were primarily citizens with other occupations, warfare was limited to seasonal, relatively local and of low-intensity. Neither side could afford heavy casualties or sustained campaigns, so conflicts seem to have been resolved by single battles.

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Three aspects of the definitive classical image : heroic nudity, ideal physical form, and contrapposto

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Heroic nudity symbolizes that the ideal warrior needs nothing for battle except for his ideal soul.
Ideal physical form--Greeks thought that the ideal body was representational for the ideal soul.
Contrapposto was a pose of balance. To the Greeks this was a moral balance as well as a physical balance.

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The Persian Wars / Thermopolae

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2 wars A great number of wealthy Poleis revolted against Persian contrl. Darius, King of Persia, invaded Greece with a large army. Miltiades, Athenian commander, with an army defeated Persian army at Marathon.
Persian War two. Xerxes son of Darius and now King of Persia invaded Greece with 125,000 men, one of the largest military forces ever assembled. Leonides met the Persian Army at Thermopylae, a pass in northern Greece. At first supported by 6,000 troops he attacked and held the Persian army for three daysm inflicting heavy casualties. After 2 days Greeks were outflanked. Send hoplites back to Greece. Third day he attacked Persians and he and300 were killed. This battle gave the rest of Greece time to organize but the Persian army attacked Greece and burned Athens. The delian league was an alliance of Greek poleis designed to protect themselfs from Persians.

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The Delian League / the Athenian Empire

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The Delian League--Founded in 477 was an alliance of Greek poleis for defense against the Persians, however by 454 this had become in reality an Athenian Empire controlling almost all of the poleis around the Aegean Sea. Spartan fear of Athenian power was the immediate cause of the Peloponnesian war. Every city was required to send either money or ships to the Delian League every year. Most sent money. easier. If you send ships have to also send crew and be responsible for repairs.

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Harmartia / the defects of your attributes / the weakness of your strength

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martia (Ancient Greek: ἁμαρτία) is a term developed by Aristotle in his work Poetics. The term can simply be seen as a character’s flaw or error. In Greek dramaturgy, hamartia is the tragic flaw of the protagonist in a given tragedy. The word hamartia is rooted in the notion of missing the mark (hamartanein) and covers a broad spectrum that includes accident and mistake,[1] as well as wrongdoing, error, or sin.[2] In Nicomachean Ethics, hamartia is described by Aristotle as one of the three kinds of injuries that a person can commit against another person. Hamartia is an injury committed in ignorance (when the person affected or the results are not what the agent supposed they were).[3]

This form of drawing emotion from the audience is a staple of the Greek tragedies. In Greek tragedy, stories that contain a character with a hamartia often follow a similar blueprint. The hamartia, as stated, is seen as an error in judgment or unwitting mistake is applied to the actions of the hero. For example, the hero might attempt to achieve a certain objective X; by making an error in judgment, however, the hero instead achieves the opposite of X, with disastrous consequences.

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Hubris

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Hubris (also hybris; pronounced /ˈhjuːbrɪs/ due to the hypercorrection of the Greek spelling due to the incorrect transcription of /u/ for /ὕ/) means extreme haughtiness or arrogance. Hubris often indicates being out of touch with reality and overestimating one's own competence or capabilities, especially for people in positions of power.

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Post and lintel construction

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Post and lintel (or Post and beam) is a simple architrave[1] where a horizontal member (the lintel—or header) is supported by two vertical posts at either end. This form is commonly used to support the weight of the structure located above the openings in a bearing wall created by windows and doors. Problem is if the stones are too far away then the lintel will shatter. Cannot be more than like 35 feet.

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Dominant Greek architectural metaphors

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When they wanted to do something they went outside Acropolis was a high city. There is no contradiction between it being defensible and it being sacred. It's where the earth meets the sky. There is a seeking of balance. It's a place where gods have appeared to human beings. The temples weren't placed randomly but rather they appeared where they thought these encounters took place. The experience of meeting the gods is terrifying. A temple is a rational ordering of a sacred place.

A temple is a proper house for a god. A perfected and sanctified space. All greek temples have 2 columns and a triangle roof. Temple is abstract for a standing nude male figure or standing clothed woman. Entasis is the bulge in the posts. This underlies the human body. It is a metaphor for the flexing of a leg muscle. Doric temples radiate strength and power. Mostly brute strength.

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Entasis

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In architecture, entasis is the application of a convex curve to a surface for aesthetic purposes. Its best-known use is in certain orders of Classical columns that curve slightly as their diameter is decreased from the bottom upwards. In the Hellenistic period some columns with entasis are cylindrical in their lower parts. Some Roman columns are 'cigar-shaped', with the widest point some distance above the foot, but this is unusual and to most eyes unattractive.

The word derives from the Greek word ἐντείνειν, to stretch tightly

.entasis corrects the optical illusion of concavity in the columns which the fallible human eye would create if a correction were not made.

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The Roman Republica / Res publica/ The Senate

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The Roman Republic was the period of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government. It began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy, c. 508 BC, and lasted 482 years until its subversion, through a series of civil wars, into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

The Roman Republic was governed by a complex constitution, which centered on the principles of a separation of powers and checks and balances. The evolution of the constitution was heavily influenced by the struggle between the aristocracy (the patricians), and other Romans who were not from famous families, the plebeians. Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance.

During the first two centuries, the Republic saw its territory expand from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. In the next century, Rome grew to dominate North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, it grew to dominate the rest of modern France, as well as much of the east. At this point, the republican political machinery was replaced with imperialism.

The precise event which signalled the end of the Roman Republic and the transition into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. Towards the end of the period a selection of Roman leaders came to so dominate the political arena that they exceeded the limitations of the Republic as a matter of course. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC, the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian (Augustus) under the first settlement in 27 BC, as candidates for the defining pivotal event ending the Republic.

Many of Rome's legal and legislative structures can still be observed throughout Europe and the rest of the world by modern nation state and international organizations. The Romans' Latin language has influenced grammar and vocabulary across parts of Europe and the world.

The Senate's ultimate authority derived from the esteem and prestige of the Senate.[4] This esteem and prestige was based on both precedent and custom, as well as the high calibre and prestige of the Senators.[5] The Senate passed decrees, which were called senatus consultum. This was officially "advice" from the Senate to a magistrate. In practice, however, these were usually obeyed by the magistrates.[6] The focus of the Roman Senate was directed towards foreign policy.[7] Though it technically had no official role in the management of military conflict, the Senate ultimately was the force that oversaw such affairs. The senate also managed the civil administration in the city and the town. The requirements for becoming a senator included having at least 100,000 denarii worth of land, being born of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held public office at least once before. New Senators had to be approved by the sitting members.

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Patrician / Plebeian

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The term patrician (Latin: patricius, Greek: πατρίκιος) originally referred to a group of elite families in ancient Rome, including both their natural and adopted members. In the late Roman Empire, the class was broadened to include high council officials, and after the fall of the Western Empire it remained a high honorary title in the Byzantine Empire. Medieval patrician classes were once again formally defined groups of elite burgher families in many medieval Italian republics, such as Venice and Genoa, and subsequently "patrician" became a vaguer term used for aristocrats and elite bourgeoisie in many countries. he distinction between patricians and plebeians in Ancient Rome was based purely on birth. Although modern writers often portray patricians as rich and powerful families who managed to secure power over the less-fortunate plebeian families, most historians argue that this is an over-simplification. As civil rights for plebeians increased during the middle and late Roman Republic, many plebeian families had attained wealth and power while some traditionally patrician families had fallen into poverty and obscurity

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The Roman City Grid

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They based the urban plan on the layout of Roman army camps. Like Etruscan towns they were laid out in a grid with two bisecting main streets crossed at right angles to divide the town into quarters. The forum and other public buildings were located at this intersection.

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Roman Realism

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Portrait sculptors of the republican period sought to create lifelike images based on careful observation of their subjects. Often these were made from death masks. Instead of generalizing a human face, this new Roman idealization emphasized the hallmarks of advanced age and the distinguishing aspects of individual likeness. Frequently we take thess portraits of wrinkled elders at face value, as highly realistic and faithful descriptions of actual human beings. BNut there is good reason to think that these portraits actually conform to the particularly roman idealization that underscores the effects of aging on the human face.

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cosmopolitain society

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Cosmopolitanism is the ideology that all human ethnic groups belong to a single community based on a shared morality. This is contrasted with communitarian and particularistic theories, especially the ideas of patriotism and nationalism.[citation needed] Cosmopolitanism may entail some sort of world government or it may simply refer to more inclusive moral, economic, and/or political relationships between nations or individuals of different nations. A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolitan.

The cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality, a shared economic relationship, or a political structure that encompasses different nations. In its more positive versions, the cosmopolitan community is one in which individuals from different places (e.g. nation-states) form relationships of mutual respect. As an example, Kwame Anthony Appiah suggests the possibility of a cosmopolitan community in which individuals from varying locations (physical, economic, etc.) enter relationships of mutual respect despite their differing beliefs (religious, political, etc.).

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Empire

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The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean.[5] The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, Augustus.

The 500-year-old Roman Republic, which preceded it, had been weakened and subverted through several civil wars.[nb 2] Several events are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including Julius Caesar's appointment as perpetual dictator (44 BC), the Battle of Actium (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the honorific Augustus (4 January 27 BC).[nb 3] Roman expansion began in the days of the Republic, but reached its zenith under Emperor Trajan. At this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 6.5 million km2[6] of land surface. Because of the Empire's vast extent and long endurance, the institutions and culture of Rome had a profound and lasting influence on the development of language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law, and forms of government in the territory it governed, particularly Europe, and by means of European expansionism throughout the modern world.

In the late 3rd century AD, Diocletian established the practice of dividing authority between four co-emperors, in order to better secure the vast territory, putting an end to the Crisis of the Third Century. During the following decades the empire was often divided along an East/West axis. After the death of Theodosius I in 395 it was divided for the last time.[7]

The Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 as Romulus Augustus was forced to abdicate by Odoacer.[8] The Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire ended in 1453 with the death of Constantine XI and the capture of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks led by Mehmed II.[9]

the domain ruled by an emperor or empress; the region over which imperial dominion is exercised

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Augustus

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Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. it is common to call him Octavius. After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian restored the outward facade of the Roman Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, but in practice retained his autocratic power. It took several years to determine the exact framework by which a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler; the result became known as the Roman Empire. The emperorship was never an office like the Roman dictatorship which Caesar and Sulla had held before him; indeed, he declined it when the Roman populace "entreated him to take on the dictatorship".[1] By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including those of tribune of the plebs and censor. He was consul until 23 BC.[2] His substantive power stemmed from financial success and resources gained in conquest, the building of patronage relationships throughout the Empire, the loyalty of many military soldiers and veterans, the authority of the many honors granted by the Senate,[3] and the respect of the people. Augustus' control over the majority of Rome's legions established an armed threat that could be used against the Senate, allowing him to coerce the Senate's decisions. With his ability to eliminate senatorial opposition by means of arms, the Senate became docile towards him. His rule through patronage, military power, and accumulation of the offices of the defunct Republic became the model for all later imperial governments.

The reign of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Despite continuous wars on the frontiers, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. Augustus enlarged the empire dramatically, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Raetia, expanded possessions in Africa, and completed the conquest of Hispania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with client states, and made peace with Parthia through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard, and created official police and fire-fighting services for Rome.

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Classical symbolism

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he Minotaur In Greek mythology, the Minotaur was a creature that was part man and part bull.[1] It dwelt at the center of the Labyrinth, which was an elaborate maze-like construction[2] built for King Minos of Crete and designed by the architect Daedalus and his son Icarus who were ordered to build it to hold the Minotaur. The historical site of Knossos is usually identified as the site of the labyrinth. The Minotaur was eventually killed by Theseus.

"Minotaur" is Greek for "Bull of Minos." The bull was known in Crete as Asterion, a name shared with Minos's foster father.
labrysLabrys is the term for a doubleheaded axe, known to the Classical Greeks as pelekys or sagaris, and to the Romans as a bipennis.

The labrys symbolism is found in Minoan, Thracian, Greek, and Byzantine religion, mythology, and art, dating from the Middle Bronze Age onwards. The labrys also appears in African religious symbolism and mythology (see Shango).

The labrys was formerly a symbol of Greek fascism. Today it is sometimes used as a symbol of Hellenic Neopaganism. As an LGBT symbol it represents lesbianism and female or matriarchal power.
The labyrinth In Greek mythology, the Labyrinth (Greek labyrinthos) was an elaborate structure designed and built by the legendary artificer Daedalus for King Minos of Crete at Knossos. Its function was to hold the Minotaur, a creature that was half man and half bull and was eventually killed by the Athenian hero Theseus. Daedalus had made the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Theseus was aided by Ariadne, who provided him with a fateful thread, literally the "clew", or "clue", to wind his way back again

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The role of rationality in the Roman view of the universe

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The Romans believed that to human beings were the only ones capable of rationality. This is why we must control our passions. Thus u get when courage is tempered by wisdom justice prevails.

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Arch buttress

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Round arches displace most of their weight or down ward thrust along their curving sides, transmittion that weight to adjacent supporting uprights. From there, the thrust goes to and is supported by the ground. To create an arch, brick or cut stones are formed into a curve by fitting together wedge shaped pieces, called voussoirs, until they meet and are locked together at the top center by the final piece called the keystone. These voussoirs exert an outward as well as a downward thrust, so arches may require additional support called buttressing from adjacent masonry elements.

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Vault/ dome / corbled vault

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Vault-An arched masonry structure that spans an interior space. Corbled vault--A vault made by projecting courses of stone. Dome--A rounded vault, usually over a circular space. Consists of curved masonry. May be crowned by an open space (oculus) and or lantern.

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concrete

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Concrete was cheap, relatively light and easily transported as compared to stone. Roman concrete consisted of powdered lime, a volcanic sand called pozzolana, and various types of rubble such as small rocks and broken pottery. Mixing these materials in water caused a chemical reaction that blended them and they hardened as they dried into a strong solid mass. It becamse used for walls, arches, and vaults. This freed the Romans from the limits of right angle forms. Concrete's weakness was that it absorbned moisture and would deteriorate so they covered it with marble, stucco or painted plaster.

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Basilica / nave / aisle / apse

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Basilica - # an early Christian church designed like a Roman basilica; or a Roman Catholic church or cathedral accorded certain privileges; "the church was raised to the rank of basilica"
# a Roman building used for public administration

Nave-n Romanesque and Gothic Christian abbey, cathedral basilica and church architecture, the nave is the central approach to the high altar, the main body of the church

Aisle-# a long narrow passage (as in a cave or woods)
# passageway between seating areas as in an auditorium or passenger vehicle or between areas of shelves of goods as in stores
# part of a church divided laterally from the nave proper by rows of pillars or columns

apse-In architecture, the apse (Greek αψις (apsis), then Latin absis: "arch, vault"; sometimes written apsis; plural apses) is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome.