Arch 112 Final Dec.4/09

Front 1

Homo habilis

Back 1

(2.4 – 1.6mya) *short lived spp
• Notes the start of jump in brain size
• Homo->erectus->sapiens
• AKA handy man because found with tools (stone tools) approx 2mya
• Found in 1984 at Olduvai gorge
• Much more gracile than boisei
• First definite expansion of cranial cap
o 500-800sm^3 avg. 5ft

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Homo rudolfensis

Back 2

had larger cranial capacity than H.habilis

Front 3

Oldowon tools

Back 3

o First tools
o Found at Oldevai Gorge
o Very simple
o Use wear analysis, looks at cutting edgy, make tool resembles it and seewhtat it can cut (experimental archaeology)
o Edges show that the tools used to butcher, cut hide, cut plants
o Stone flakes are also used for finer cutting
o Start to see hammer stones (for chop, smash , grind)
o Used to smash leg bones to get the marrow

Front 4

Anatomical Structures for Speech

Back 4

o Involve soft body parts that don’t preserve (tongue, pharynx, larynx, etc.)
o Some are connected to the basi-cranium and that preserves, therefore we can get an idea of what the features are like
o Most terrestrial mammals (except humans) have a flat basicranium
o Bone position means pharynx is straight and larynze is up high in throat
o Allows animals to breath and swallow at the sane time
o Modern humans have an inverted V basicranium
o V curves pharynx and pushes larynx into the throat
o Primates can learn sign language, but can’t learn to talk beause anatomy aint’ right

Front 5

Homo erectus

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(AKA: Homo ergaster) – 1.8 mya – 200,000ya
• different, but very similar so treated as the same... but for this class, erectus
• ergaster is older from africa
• erectus is younger from SE asia and china
• erectus appears just before the pleistocene epoch

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Pleistocene Epoch

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(1.5mya – 10,000mya)
• AKA: time period of Glaciation
o numerous advances and retreats of glaciers.
o Affects climate considerably
o recline into the north and south
• some paleoclimatologists believe the pleistocene epoch is done, therefore no need to worry about glaciers again
o others believe we are in an interglacial period and that these things might come back
• nobody knows why the earth got cooler, climate disrupted, why so much ice (miles thick)
o but slower event, not instan
• so much water in ice, sea level dropped about 150ft.
o Opened up more space for people to move on
o therefore arch sites are lost on the shore when water returned... lost a lot of info

Front 7

Cranium of Erectus?

Back 7

• Prognathus face, looks apish
• larger cranium
• increase in robustness (also seen in archaic homo sapiens)
• cranial bones are thick
• can see supraorbital is very large (blyth)
• nuchal torus on back of cranium for muscle attachment
• small forehead (large forehead is characteristic of modern humans)
• small saggital ridge, nothing excessive
• cranium is wide at the back of the skull
• avg cranial capacity ~1000cm^3
o quite an increase in cranial cap
o about 2/3 the size of a modern human
o one of the distinguishing features splitting erectus and ergaster
o but maybe incease in cranial cap is just because body size increased (5.5ft)
 because as the body gets bigger, so does skull, so does brain
• first appearance of a projecting nose
o no known why
 thought to protect in arid environment (longer nose gives more time to prep air)

Front 8

Dentition of erecutus?

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• upper incisors are shovel shaped (scoop behind tooth)
• shows up first in erectus
• reason not known but is a dominant trait
o strong in N Asia, weak in E Asia; found in modern north american aboriginal ppl
o used to id ppl

Front 9

Body Size of erectus?

Back 9

• sexually dimorphic (at least in E Africa)
• post cranial bones are modern
• shaft walls are thicker (eg: in femur)
o suggests that homo erectus has more muscle and more strength than modern humans

Front 10

Nariokotome

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• a recovered specimen of erectus
• thought to have died by a stream where sediemtn covered it
• found in tricana region in africa
• looks very human
• identified to be the remains of a 12yo boy
o age and sex determined by tooth eruption, shape of pelvis, looking at end of femurs (epiphyses not completely fused)
• arms are shortened up (mid thigh) compared to down to the knee
• about 5.5ft tall... at 12yo... tall dude
o modern human females reach final height at 13-14 yo?!?!?!
o estimated that if he continued growing/living, he could have been 6ft
o most animal species are secual mature at a young age and once mature, are adults
 we are different
 has evolutionary implecations
• modern humans born at immature state of development (so babies can get out)
o we are born 3 months prematurely compared to other primates
• therefore... the young are going to have more time to learn from the adult since they are more capable of learning earlier compared to us
• why is there the need for a longer growing up period in erectus?
o Here is where we see the development of culture
o we also see the first of our line that are found outside of africa
 prior to erectus, everything was found in africa
 erectus showed ability to adapt to new environment and were able to spread into asia and parts of europe
 spread referred to as Hominid Radiation

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Hominid Radiation

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• don't know why it happens (climate change, search for food, pop growth, curiousity)
• does not get to australia though...
o Wallace trench
 very deep trench
 even in glacier time (when water receded), wallace trench was full

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Eugene Dubois (1891)

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• Dutch anatomist
• first discovered remains in Java, Indonesia by the solo river
• wanted to dtermine where humans came from
• narrowed the search down to close to europe (since in his mind, europe #1)
o ignored africa (because weren't considered humans)
• found the skull and femur around same area, therefor assumed they belonged togeher... named it...
o Pithecanthropus erectus - “upright ape-man”
• scientsists thought he was the ancestor of an oranguatan
o but he brought the remains back, and scientists said that it was something along the lines of human
o it was the femur, not the skull, that made them change their minds
 femur was injured during the lifetime of this guy. Hamstring injury is similar to modern hamstring injry
 injury healed and we looked at success rate
 this individual is being cared for ( can't hunr or walk)
• caring is such a human trait

Front 13

Zhoukoudian

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• important erectus site in Beijing
• discovered in 1920's
• a cave site
• found erectus fossils in there
o at least 40 individuals found there
o found with numerous animal bones and tools
• NA scientists did good job at excavating (measure, casts, etc.)
o all specimens lost during WWII
o casts sent back to US, originals left in china
o Japanese got closer to Beijing, therefor they sent the originals to US by train to coast; and then...
 the marines in charage of protecting failed; train was captured by japanese and the boxes were never seen again...
• conspiracy theories
o bones got out and boxes were decoys
o remains were captured and taken to japan to be used as a bargaining chip at some time
o ...but most likely, specimens destroyed. So, luckily they got good info
• gives us an idea of chinese erectus
o measurements show us they were short/stalky individuals (males >5ft, females just a bit shorter)
o broad shoulders
o long arms
o cranial cap = 1100cm^3
o broad faces
o thick brow ridges
o incisors definitely shovel shaped
• have a high infant mortality rates and short life span (enough bone found to determine so
• 40% of individuals at this site <14yo
o very few individuals reached 50yo
o ...again, suggests low lifespan... continued until modern times
• artifacts found in association with specimen
o over 100,000 artifacts
o suggests, based on diff levels and tools, was that this cave was used intermitantly for over 250,000 years
o earlier tools were crude and simple, but got better
 simple chopping tools and shit
 stone choice improved over the years (sandstone[shit]-> better churts and flints)
 found the use of bone and horn
 antler tines are used as digging sticks
o lots of animal bones found too
 suggests that other animals were there too (carnivores – big cats)
 sometimes erectus was the prey
 some of the bones do show butchering patterns by erectus
• don't know if animals were hunted then buthcered, or if erectus scavenged
• bones with tool marks
o horse leg bone, skulls of horses (in mandible)
o Why?
 Started looking at butchering practices in N Canada
 looked at ways to get tongue in modern pop, same patterns seen in horse skull
 leg bones have least meat, therefor eaten last
• rounded canines (of carnivores), drags across the bone and leaves a u-shape
• tool mark leaves a v-shape because cutting edge of tool is sharp
• if both are present, can determine which one came first
o if tooth before tool, then erectus scavenged and vice versa
o probability of using fire (either started or natural)
 making fire is hard, so maybe found and used natural fire
o clothing... did they wear any?
 Tough to determine what their bodies are like
 how much hair on bodies?
• Asian erectus no hair = bad in winter
 clothing would have been in the form of animal skins
• poncho over the shoulder
• no evidence for tailored clothing
 evidence of awl at some erectus site
• a pointed stone tool
• used for punching holes in leather... for use
o therefore have to know how to treat hides in order to wear them (smoke or tanned them)

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Endocasts

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• asymmetrical brains (same as ours)
o because diff halves perform diff functions
o can tell by looking at the shape of the inner cranium
• generally, ability for language and use of symbols are controlled by left side of the brain. Hand eye coordination controlled by right side of brain
• asymmetry suggests that erectus had similar skills to humans (language, fine motor, etc.)
• basi-crainium approaches that of modern humans
o therefore structures in throat are similar to humans therefore can have speech (complex culture too)

Front 15

Acheulian Tool tradition

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• we can call the tools a “tool tradition” because have a variety of diff tools
o see development of more sophisticated tools than habilis
• wide variety of large and small tools (small flakes for fine butchering)
• bifacial tool
o tool that is flaked on both faces of the tool
• unifacial tool
o tool that is flaked on 1 face of the tool
• hand axes are most well known tool of this time
o symmetrical
o pointed / tear shaped
o lots of skill needed to make this, therefore language must hav been there to teach
o multipurpose tool
 butchering
 scraping hides
 cutting wood
 digging roots
• did they have ability to construct dwellings?
o No real indication until modern humans

Front 16

Archaic Homo sapiens

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(400,000 – 130,000ya)
• pop'n undergo change that help them adapt to surroundings
o change could be physical or cultural
• termed archaic because while they have their place in our spp, they are still diff from us (significantly)
• best known population are the Neandertals (Neanderthals) – 125,000 – 30,000ya
o sometimes classed under Homo neanderthals or sometimes classed under Homo sapiens neanderthals
o currently, Homo neanderthals... therefore diff spp from us but it could change
o very diff appearance
o number of diff sub spp, but we are the only existing sub spp
• considered archaic because seemed transitional between erectus and modern humans
• archaic forms are found in africa, asia and europe
o neanderthals are only found in europe and western Asia... not in africa!!!
• physical diff btween archaic and erectus not much diff
o cranial tones still thick
o superorbital torus prominent
o not much development in the vault (head height)
o changes in africa and asia is more modern in appearance. In europe, changes are more toward a neanderthal pattern
o cranial cap = 1200cm^3 (erectus was about 1000cm^3)
 brains are more similar to humans
 more development in the frontals than erectus
 skull bones got thinner over time
 skull gets wider in the temporal region, therefor brain in that region is getting larger
 a lot of variation in the early archaic from 1 region to another
• Asians have shovel teeth
• Become more and more like modern over time duhhh
• Showing up in Europe about 300,000ya but over time get more neandertalish in shape
• Find a lot of remains in caves, suggesting their habitat
o Also found dwellings in open air site (outside)
o Find bones in Caves because are easy to modify for living and are not as subject to modern human disturbances (war, construction, farming, etc.)
• Controlled and used fire
o Can find depressions in the ground where fire occurred, suggests building of a hearth
o Suggests that people were cooking meat in this time period
• Built temporary shelters
o Concentrations of stones and bones suggests this
• Level of hunting capability
o Diff opinions – large game to scavengers
o See some evidence of scavenging and some evidence of large game hunting
o Channel island of jersey…

Front 17

Atapuerca

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• Cave In spain
• Contains the largest sample of archaics found in one area (approx 30)
• Archaics date to about 30,000ya, seem more neandertalish (more robust) than the other archaics

Front 18

Levallois tool technology

Back 18

• Hand aces and Flakes for butchering are found
• Approx 200,000 ya, see advance in tool making tech
o Stone core is prepared ahead of time therefore get a fair amount of consistency from the flakes
 Hit it in such a way that you block off the warped end
 Then strike it so that flakes come off with a consistent edge
 Like what I saw in the video
 More effective and efficient way to make tools
o Called the levallois technique
o This continues to advance more and more
 Eg: various types of churt (cobble) are heat treated before used. Makes it harder and keeps edge better
o Archaics don’t appear to use bone as a tool, modern humans use bone a lot
 Can make very sharp tools out of bone

Front 19

Lazaret Cave (Nice)

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• Find remains of constructed shelter (6x11 ft)
• Leaned a plank against a wall
o Found decomposed remains that would have been placed in the dirt and leaned in the wall
o Suggests that hides were probably placed over top of it
o On outside are rocks and large bones that are placed to support it
o On outside are remains of 2 hearths
 Charcoal that was recovered comes from oak trees and boxwood trees
• Slow burning wood therefore leaves nice embers behind so easy to make fire later
• Suggests that they were choosing their wood carefully

Front 20

Channel Island of Jersey

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• Off the west coast of france
• Found remains of mammoth and wolly rhinocrerous
o Found in sites inhabitated by archaics
• Adults, pattern suggested that hunting and butchering of animals occurred
o Looks like first incident of using a cliff to kill animals (like bison jumps, but not as well planned)
o Kill site at bottom of cliff and camp site a short distance away
 Mammoth is huge, therefore you can’t take it all back, have to butcher it
 Take back:
• Front quarters
• Hind quarters
• Rib section
• … this is what you find at the camp site
 Leave behind:
• Cranium
• Vertebral column
• Lower legs (post knee)
• … this is what you find at the kill site
o Suggests that if they did not run them off a jump, that they at least killed them somehow, butchered and harvested
 Definite hunting abilities

Front 21

Germany

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• Found 3 well preserved Spears
• Found in boggy area, low O2 therefore not much decomposition
• Dating suggests they date to 400,000ya
o Much older than anyone thought would be
o But contamination might occur at sites and date might be eff’d, but we’ll see if it holds up… more work needs to be done
• 6ft long
o Therefore probably a throwing spear
o Thrusting spears about 8ft long
• Well made spears (good balance)
• Found in association with horse bones
o Butchered because marks are visible

Front 22

Neandertals

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-(130,000 – 35,000 ya Middle Paleolithic)
-Co-exist with modern humans for 1000’s of years and then we beat the shit out of them
-No neandertals found anywhere else besides Europe
-Usually think back to the classic Neanderthal, but that guy was 75,000 – 35,000 years ago… before that was different
-Paleoanthropologist try to figure where they fit in the scheme of things. Like us but different…
-Found in western Europe during last glaciation
-Most robust of the group of Neanderthals
-Found in eastern Europe and tip of western asia
-Less robust
-Climate different?
-Not stupid… not more violent then we are…
-Ignorance of neandertals developed when found at Neander Valley (1856)

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Neander Valley

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(1856)
• Where the first one found
• In germany
• Top portion of skull discovered (orbit area to occipital). No face
o Skull was relatively large
o Flatter than modern humans
o Occipital bun… protrusion on posterior of occipital
o Looks fairly primitive
 19th century ppl not ready to find this… so ape like… can’t be part of our lineage
o Scholars saw it wasn’t that different
 Some others said it had nothing to do with us

Front 24

Rudolf Virchow

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• Well known anatomist
• Suggested that the fact that this specimen had large brow ridges was the result of numerous large blows to the head, mis-shapening the bones
o But found more and more bones and virchow was debunked

Front 25

Marcellin Boule

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(1913)
• French anthropologist
• Reproduced a reconstruction of a Neanderthals
o Influential for the next 50 years
• Found numerous Neanderthal remains by this time
• But did not believe Neanderthals were ancestors of humans
o Therefore his reconstruction was full of biased
o Made them as primitive as he could
 No s-shaped curve
 Shoulder positioned hunched forward so arms drag
 Pelvis is tilted forward – throws entire lower body off
 Knees do not and cannot fully extend
 Opposable toe
 … bs… he expected an upright ape and then he went out and drew it. Eff’n deuche
• Even did drawings of fleshed Neanderthals
o Dark creature covered in body hair
o Vacant looking face
• But maybe because specimen was no good…

Front 26

La Chapelle-aux-Saints

Back 26

o A shitty skeleton
o An aged man crippled by arthritis so bones were eff’d up
o This particular idea held for a long time…

Front 27

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

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• Diff from us due to adaptations to the cold
• Differences because environ from extreme north to deserts
o Arctic are short stalky individuals
 Stalky chest
 Shorter limbs
 …helps keep heat
o Africans are tall and thin
 Linear to help shed more heat
• Bones are very robust
• Muscle attachment areas show they were extremely strong individuals
o Found at outer limits of what you’d find in modern human
• Hands have great strength to them
o Could perform actions that noone else could do
• Cranium
o Not a lot of forehead
 High forehead is a human trait
o Have occipital bun
o Backs of skull by mastoid process is very broad
 We are kind of pointed, not that broad
 We have flat temporal region, they are bulgy
o Very thick supraorbital torus
 Pronounced arch over the ridges
o Very large, prognathus face
o Very wide nose
 Therefore eyes are very far apart from eachother
o No chin
 They have protective bone on inside of mandible, we have ours outside
o Cranial capacity = 1520cm^3
 Some can reach 1650cm^3
 Modern human is about 1450cm^3
• Range from 1250 –
• …therefore he is obviously different from us

Front 28

Neanderthal culture?

Back 28

…we now have the ability to look at their culture
• These guys are very adaptive and intelligent since they were able to survive adverse, arctic conditions in Europe
• And they lived quite well.
• Very successful hunters
o Hunted large, small and middle sized animals
 Mammoth, wolly rhino, bison, etc.
o No long range weapons
 Had thrusting spears and throwing spears
 Hunting was up close and personal
• Frequently injured
• Researchers looked at pattern of trauma on Neanderthal skeletons
o Compared these patterns to modern pop’n
o Found high proportion of head and neck injuries
 Same as modern rodeo performers
 Suggests hard lifestyle
o Tool tech is continued and elaborated
 This is called…

Mousterian tradition

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Mousterian tradition

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• Flakes of stone still comes from prepared cores, but have much more sophisticated flaking
o Quite often comes from 1 side (uniface)
• Differs because a number of different tool types from flakes
o Have a tool kit
o Diff shape of tools for diff activities
 Scrape
 Pierce
 Cut
 Etc. up to 63 different types of tools
o Total absence of bone tools
 Weird because they had a flesher (stone tool) but was usually made of bone by more modern dudes
 Flesher was a tool
• Deer tibia thinned to a triangular edge
• Used to remove connective tissue from hide
• Scrapers were smaller used after flesher and used to make the hide soft
o Identified by wear use analysis to determine what shapes and sizes were used for what activities
 Eg: a scraper is used to scrape flesh off of hides

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Kebara Cave, Israel

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• A number of tools were recovered here
• Wear use analysis used again (diff activity = diff mark on tool)
• Also found was a bunch of triangular flakes (50 found)
o Projectile point
o Wear on the bottom portion of projectile
 Friction of a stone spear point when connected to a wooden shaft
o So also doubled up as spear point too (I guess primarily used as spear)
 Used for hunting animals, not warfare
o 100,000 – ya
• Assume wore clothing for protection
o Tools suggest they were using hides
 Therefore must have had a method to cure skins
 A number of ways to cure hides
• Eg: smoke and then use scraper to soften it
• Eg: stretch hides on rack and then use brains and work it into the hide
o No evidence of style
• Most of livng areas are located in caves and rock shelters
o Cause us to think they live exclusively hear, but remember how open sites can get eff’d up
o Offer protection from elements
o Wind breaks were set up at cave mouth
o Fires were in general use
 Cooking
 Warmth
 Light
 Protection from predators
o One benefit of fire is that it extends your evening
 Necessary component of culture
• Evening time around fire is when you pass on knowledge, bonding time
o If in open air site, must have had some kind of a building
 Did find some structures like…

Moldova, Ukraine

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Moldova, Ukraine

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• Open air site
• Has the traces of an oval ring
o Composed of mammoth bones
o 26x16 ft
o Suggested that the bones were used to hold down skin walls of hut/tent
o Support would have been built of branches tied together
• Inside the oval is a number of hearths
o 100’s of Small tools
o 1000’s of waste flakes
o Animal bone fragments
o … so some kind of work area

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Did Neanderthals care for the aged/injured?

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• Some skeletons suggest that this did occur…
• 2 skeletons suggest this.
1)Shanidar I – good example
• Comes from shanidar cave in iraq
• Supplies good evidence that Neanderthal cared for community
• Skeletons showed care for 7 adults and 2 infants (male and female)
o at least 4 were deliberately buried (cultural behaviour)
• male about 40yo at death
o cranial cap = 1500cm^3
o evidence of serious trauma to his body during his life (occurred at different times)
 can tell based on the amount of different healing that occurred
o received a blow to the left side of his head
 fractured his left eye socket (lost eye)
o suffered a blow to the right side of body = damage to right arm
 below elbow was missing
 no use of right arm
• can tell by looking at humerus, clavicle and scapula
o became smaller and wasted due to lack of use
• left side was better
o damage to lower right legs
 broke his foot bones
 right knee had been damaged
o left leg was broken
• someone had to care for him in order for him to get healed (again, these injuries did not happen at the same time)
• he was lame, but kept alive for some reason
o must have add some value besides ability to provide food
o a very human ability to care
• he was deliberately buried at the end of his life
o very human trait
o showed compassion and caring
• not all dead were buried though…
o if there were, then we’d have found more remains
• deliberate disposal goes back even further than burial


2)La Chapelle-aux-Saints – not so good example
• Old man
• Crippled by arthritis
• No teeth
o Majority of tooth loss occurred after death after flesh and ligaments rotted away
• Injury occurred at the mandible
o Absessed tooth = infection in tooth
o Infection got into the bone and ate away at the bone
 Would have been very painful
o Sepsemia would probably have killed him over a long period of time

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Atapuerca, Spain

Back 33

• About 30 indiv found at this cave site
• Found at bottom of shaft… so thought to be a disposal site
• About 300,000 ya

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Most neandertal burial digs were done in the early 1900’s and mucked up all the sites. So its questionable how deliberate the burials actually were. What can we look for?

Back 34

• Burial pit?
• Hole dug out for them?
• Body positioned in a special way? Mostly found in the fetal position
o Prone position is a recent European way
• Presence of grave goods?
o Simple things like a projectile point, piece of animal bone with flesh, etc.
o Not much for specialty goods… they are fucking cavemen
• So… neanderthals did bury their dead, it is uniquely human, but it is far from modern

Modern human burials start about 35,000 ya
Contains grave goods
Tools
Items of personable adornment
Decorated items
Combs
Necklaces and bracelets

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Upper Paleolithic (Upper old stone age

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35,000-12,000ya
-Modern humans appear
-Suspected origin is Africa
-Settled in Cen and SE Europe by at least 45,000 ya
-Settled near neandertal groups
35,000 ya, Neanderthals are wiped out
-Homosapiens spread in number very quickly
-Early homosapiens developed very elaborate hunting culture with good tools
-Culture is well established
-Identified by technological developments
-Developed tools and weapons
-Also develop a social life and art
12,000ya = dev of settlement, domestication, etc.
-Climate = cool summers(12-15C) mild winters (0C)
-Result of this temp= a large treeless country
-Lots of lakes, marshes… a hunters paradise (large herds across grass lands)
-Food is very bountiful
-Ppl were eating everything – large to small game, fishing, birds, sea animals
-Ppl are spreading and making large shelters – dwellings have storage pits
-Finding more sites, suggests more ppl
-Storage pits may be a reason why humans survived better than -Neanderthal. Storage.
-Humans moved further north
-Survived because of better structures and sewn tailored clothing
-Found bone needles for sewing
-Awls (to punch holes in the leather) are found
-But because of burial practices, we can find their remains (eg: in permafrost in Russia) and see their clothes. Helps them survive
-Found paved floors
-Found tents in caves
-Found lots of open air sites excavated…
-Dolni Vestonice

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Dolni Vestonice

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o Open air site about 27,000ya in czech republic
o Contained 5 huts
o 4 huts in fence, 1 hut outside
o Oval in shape
o Large communal hearth in the centre
o Made of bone and timber with hide roofs
o Partially dug into the ground
 Because of this, assumed to be a winter site
 Helps keep things warmer
o Encircling the site were leg bones of mammoth, rhino, etc.
o Rammed into the ground
o Position implied some kind of wall, fence, etc.
o Huts were Large in size 27x45ft in size
o Some had 5 hearths in it
 Suggests that maybe 25 ind lived in it [5 fam of 5]
 So maybe 100ppl lived on this site
o Outside hut was special because it had…
o Small oval shaped oven
 Used for baking clay that had been shaped as animal figurines
 So small, therefore not used as mantle piece
• Probably ceremonial pieces for hunting blessings
o Burnt clay fragments with traces of basketry and twined ropes
 Suspected that this fragments were signs of nets used to trap game
o Bowls and pots not made until another 15,000yrs
 Because this is a hunting/gathering ppl
 Clay pots don’t travel well
o Hide bags and animal bladders were used often to carry

Front 37

Mal’ta

Back 37

• In south central Russia
• A settlement site
• About 26,000ya
• Mal’ta tradition is 26,000 - ya
o Sites with similar characteristics
o Found in places that are sheltered from the northern winds
o About 600m^2
o Houses are called semi-subterranean construction (partially dug into ground)
• Very few trees so had to be innovative
o Had large game animals
 Mammoth femur was big as me….
o Built homes from bones
 Bones were pounded into ground for support and house was built up from there
 Didn’t use fresh bones (scavengers and odour)
 Hides were draped over the bone dome and held in place with rocks
• Floor inside was paved with flat stones
o Way it was paved suggests that the flat stones here heated and placed on frozen ground (with tongs) and they sunk into the ground slightly
• Hearths on the inside of these structures were different
o A pit dug into the ground
o Lined with flat stones
o Makes it possible to conserve heat for a longer time because stones can hold the heat
o Used shit as fuel because not many trees around… lots of shit though
• Good bone- smiths
o Carved female and bird figurines

Front 38

Mezhirich

Back 38

• Site SE of kiev about 15,000ya
• About 5 houses
• Houses were good size
• Rectangular houses 13x22ft in size
• Made of bone
o Foundation wall was made of mammoth bones
o Foundation had a smaller bones, limb bones, vertebrae, etc. to reinforce
o Made a hairy bone pattern
• Mammoth hide or sod covered the structure
• Used large mammoth bones to support the roof
• Large storage pits dug between the houses, into the permafrost
o Keeps meat cool
• Eating all sorts of animals, not just large game… even found seashells
o Suggests trade routes at this site
o Also found amber [highly prized], closest source about 200,000km away
 Thought to have magical qualities
 Can conduct electricity???
• Site had about 50ppl
o Each house took about 10 men 5-6days to build
o More elaborate than other houses… so this site must have had something significant

Front 39

*upper Paleolithic ppl decorated everything!!! Must have had a lot of tools to have done so… along with other jobs…

Back 39

Started making tool out of bone and antlers… made possible with a burin [graver]

Tool Technology
• Burin or graver
o flake a stone with a pointed edge
o important for doing things like carving a bone needle
• Blade tools
o Still prepping stone core
 Flatten out top and bottom, flake around the edges = blades of same width and length
o Blades are much longer than they are wide
 From 2lb stone, can get 72ft of working edges compared to 6ft
o But this requires good stone, not just random stone
 Problems arise in getting that stone since it can’t occur everywhere
 So ppl have to be efficient when they get the stone
o Blades get smaller and smaller (microblades/microliths)
 Created in the 1000’s
 Designed to be fit into handles or blades, singly or multiples
• Serve in knives and sickles for serration
• Makes the tool easily repaired (just add more microliths)
• *composite tool = made of 2 or more pieces
o Increases efficiency and effectiveness

Front 40

Solutrean Tradition

Back 40

o A tool making tradition where the projectile points are works of art
o About 20,000ya in Europe
o Bifacially flaked, long (13inch), narrow(1/4inch at thickest point; edges translucent), thin blades of stone
o Laurel-Leafed shaped
o To delicate to be a working tool
o Used in trade or ceremony

Front 41

Atlatl

Back 41

o A spear thrower/slinger
o Hook fits into notch of spear
o
o Basically serves to extend your elbow and increase your leverage
o Effective distance = 18-27m

Front 42

Bow and Arrow

Back 42

o Effective up to 90m
o Increases variety in diet
o Can also be used as a drill to get bone flutes and whistles (30,000ya)
o Shaft straightener associated with it
o Bone with hole
o Pass the wood through the hole and it straightens

Front 43

Russian burial

Back 43

25,000ya
o Sunghir burials
o 2 children aged 8 and 13
o 5000 perforated beeds – ivory
o Red ochre
o Necklaces of canine teeth – polar fox
o Laid prone, head to head
o Long story short… huge difference between us and Neanderthals

Front 44

Upper Paleolithic Art – 35,000ya

Back 44

they made it for another purposes, archs called it art cause they are jackasses. Most paintings have an anthropomorphic theme (animals become humans and vice versa). Enviro was important and animals too.
o Dramatic outpouring of creativity
o Art on everything
o Engravings were natural and abstract

Front 45

o Friezes

Back 45

o Gigantic paintings that fill up entire walls
o Animals and abstract designs
 Hand prints, triangles, spirals…
o Europeans not alone in art
o Find painted slabs about 27,000ya in southern Africa in…
o Apollo II Cave (Africa)
o Not as well known or studied as western art

Front 46

o Portable Art

Back 46

o On tools and shit
o Small sculptures
o Etc.

Front 47

Alexander Marshack

Back 47

– Analyzed carved piece of bone
– Had 69 carved marks on it… looked like ‘2’
– Found marks were made with a number of different tools therefore they might have been made at different time periods (bone about 30,000yo)
– He believes these marks are a notation that mark the phases of the moon
– First calendar?
o Marking time…

Front 48

Venus Figurines

Back 48

– Portable art
– Molded of clay and bone ashe and then fired
– 4.5 inches high
– Oldest ones are 27,000 ya – 32,000ya… most are found 25,000-23,000 ya
– Some are realistic, some are very exaggerated (big boobs, hips, abdomen, etc)
– Some of these figurines are faceless… although they have a head.
o They could put the face on… it’s been done, but for some reason, they leave it out. More general
– Others can be carved of stone, ivory, bone, etc.
– May represent the ideal type, desire for fertility
– Holding one in your hands increased your chances of getting pregnant

Front 49

Cave Paintings

Back 49

• Horses are drawn, stubby looking
• Horses are in motion
• Have shadow and dimension… so not stupid/juvenile painting
• About 200 caves have horse drawings in them
o Only 32 have paintings of humans
 Total number of human drawings = 166… (1000’s of horses)
• Deep in the caves most likely because they are ceremonial
• Paintings are often naturalistic
o Often find bison, oxen, horses, deer, mammoth, rhino, lions, and bears
• Paintings are done using natural pigments and binding agents
o Binding agent = grease, bone marrow, blood
o Charcoal used to outline the drawing
o Ochre = orange, yellow, red
o Used as ceremonial material
o Iron oxide = browns
o Manganese dioxide = black
• Humans rarely drawn, mostly animals. Ppl scared drawing ppl = death
• Where gender was identified, 78% were male, 22% female
o Males were portrayed differently, were portrayed as being active (running, hunting, etc.)
 Often painted near animals
o Females are painted in a passive manner (standing, lying down, together with other females… but never active)
 Never near animals

Front 50

Lascaux (France)

Back 50

• Great hall of bulls
o Lots of bull paintings on 1 wall
o 4 giant bulls drawn in thick black lines and filled in
o Painted around the bulls are horses, dear, small bear, unicorn
 Painted in lots of colors
o Painted about 17,000ya
o Animals were painted over and over again
 Therefore ppl came back and re-painted
o Some of them have been painted, depicting different seasons (ie: winter coat vs. summer coat)
o Abstract designs around animals (squiggles)

Front 51

Altamira (Spain)

Back 51

• Took advantage of uneven walls, giving the animals dimension (ie: head on protruding stone)
• Hundreds of handprints on a wall
o Pigments were liquefied, and sprayed on the wall around the hand with a bone tube

Front 52

Grotte Chauvet (France)

Back 52

• Found in 1994 by spelunkers (cave crawlers)
• 3 animals that are not found anywhere else
o Panther
o Owl
o Hyena
• Also have lions and bears
• Arch benefit – this cave was found as the last painters left it
o The opening to the cave had been closed due to rock fall
o Found footprints, hearths, torches
o Slab of stone that fell from the ceiling, put a cave bear skull on top of the slab and put a small fire behind it
 30 bear skulls were placed around the slab of stone
 This was apparently a bear cave before it was sealed up
• Footprints, scattered bones, claw marks, etc. were found as evidence
 Ppl worshipped the bears to get their powers, did so to appease the bears. Suggestions why they did it…
o Did radiocarbon dating on the organic paint – 34,000ya
 Torch smears about 20,000ya
 Charcoal on floor about 26,000ya
• Us being in the cave wrecks shit (moisture from breathing, heat from light, footprints, etc.)
o Ppl touching paintings = oil on = mold growing = damage… so one person touching eff’s shit up nicely

Front 53

Bas-relief

Back 53

• A technique that was used, lost and then reinvented by the greeks
• The wall surface is partially sculpted away at the outline of the drawing, so that the drawing stands out
o Biggest example is a chipping away of about 6inches
• Done on a large scale… so lots of work to do this
• Occasionally see this done in living sites
o Others are usually done in deep cave locations
o Maybe they have it up as art in house

Front 54

Placement of paintings

Back 54

• Placement of paintings in cave is not random.
o There is a pattern of location to animals
 Central position in a cave or within a group of paintings: bison, oxen, horses
 Deer and mammoth on the outsides
 Rhino, bears and lions are found in the deepest, hardest to get to areas in the cave
• The most common animals hunted and eaten were bison, oxen and horses
o Deer and mammoth are harder (hunted but not preferred b/c difficult)
o Rhino, bears and lions are dangerous, so eff it… don’t eat them if not needed
• 14,000ya, drawings became close to entrance
o 13,000ya drawings eliminated
• We eff’d up caves with moisture from breathing, heat, etc.

Front 55

Origins of Domestication

Back 55

• Settled down takes a long ttime
• Glacier melt = water up = grasslands to forest = hard to hunt = domesticate
• Neolithic = new stone age = new tools
• Agriculture is a cultural activity
o Plants and animals
• Domestication = genetic change through artificial selection to help us (ie: turkey)
• First animal to be domesticated = wolf (canis lupus) – helps us hunt
o Canis familaris = all domesticated dogs

Front 56

• How to domesticate

Back 56

o After a kill, ppl butcher animals and leave remains
o Wolves come and scavenge remains
 Wolves stuff themselves until they can’t move
 Ppl liked their pelts, came by and killed them
 Orphaned wolf pups are found and brought home. They bonded with the ppl because they are pack animals
o Wolf pack of 8-10 with alpha male and female
 The timid wolves get the shit end of the stick get a better deal when hanging out with humans
 Over time, humans bred smaller, more submissive, easily controlled animals
• Bigger, aggressive ones were killed because too difficult
• Not much evidence for domestication though
o Tough to see diff between wild and domesticated animals, so a bone is a bone
o First animal spps domesticated in SW asia = goats and sheep, food animals 11,000-10,000ya
 Advantage of domesticating goats and sheep is that they are small herd animals that give lots of meat for their size
o 10,000ya in iran, find goat bones with characteristic mortality profile that you would see in managed herds
 Bones indicate that the surplus males are being killed before adulthood
 Females are kept for breeding and supplying milk
 So… young male goats are overwhelmingly killed, not many females. In hunting societies, the opposite is true. Females taste better
 Modern hunters hunt males for trophy, females for good food

Front 57

• Between 12,000-2,000 ya, ppl acquired some sort of food production

Back 57

o Agricultural life is harder and more risk than hunting and gathering
o Lots of time and energy required to plant crops and to keep them healthy. Even then, lots of factors can eff things up
o Hunters get a wide variety of food sources because they are always moving… farmers get wheat
o Hunters and gatherers have more security and free time (work about 4hrs a day to live comfortably)…
o So why agriculture?
• In 1900’s ppl made the change because they were smart enough… not good explanation

Front 58

Consequences of Food Production

Back 58

• 12,000ya, almost everyone was a hunter gatherer, after that, not so much
• Agriculture takes less territory. Ppl work it and give them idea of ownership
• Shortage of land leads to dispute
o Settlements on uncultivated land
o Heredity problems. Who to give land to?
• Settle with shit land? Or take someone elses?

Front 59

Pastoralists

Back 59

• Animal herders
• Need huge areas of grazing lands for herds
o This gave ppl the idea of land ownership

Front 60

Results of Food Production

Back 60

• Technological changes take place in order to work the land
o Ceramic vessels, pots vs. baskets, skin containers
o Could put grain in a pot and boil it
o Can store crop, grain, cereal in pots; keep it away from rats and shit
o Looms are created to weave cloth from wool and plant fibres, replacing animal skins
• More permanent houses are made
o Become sedentary in order to take care of crops
• As harvest increases, some food producing communities can support non-farmers (eg: artists, pottery ppl, tool makers)
o Therefore can start trading, start a currency
o Crafts ppl then have more time to improve their craft
• Excess production = capital wealth = economics = record keeping
• First written records are economic
• As techniques improve, more sections of ppl are not needed to make food, get more job categories
o Get a social and economic hierarchy

Front 61

Why did Neolithic farmers found it necessary to alter the environment

Back 61

• Hunters and gatherers took care of environment better than farmers
o Numbers were few, tools simple, needs modest
o Didn’t stay in 1 place long, so gave nature a chance to recover
• When ppl become sedentary, we get more and more garbage; and the earth doesn’t get a chance to heal itself
• Agriculture required burning to clear the ground
o First oxen plows don’t occur until 5000-6000 ya, prior to, you are digging manually
o After several years, nutrients are gone and can’t grow. Therefore, you go burn another area while the original rests
 This is called slash and burn agriculture (AKA swidden agriculture)
• Domesticated animals are going to remove the grass from the pastures
o Destruction depends on animal
 Sheep and goat chew differently from cattle or bison
 Cattle chew close to surface, sheep and goat rip the grasses out with roots
• Long story short, land is eff’d up by Neolithic farmers
o Clear cutting = erosion with rainfall
o Start terracing hillsides more even more land
o Deforestation = decline of spps

Front 62

Consequences of Food Production Examples

Back 62

Maya (Mesoamerica)
• Noone knows what caused their decline until now…
• Environmental impact of farming caused an internal revolution
o Common ppl working hard for food to supply rulers and priests… ppl starving
o After time, they thought gods abandoned them, so they killed the rulers and spread out and survived
o After time, ground got so eff’d up, they couldn’t feed them anymore… environmental eff up

Sumerians – Tigris – Euphrates
• Planted in the area of iran/iraq
• Irrigation farming
o Large canals were built to move water in from rivers
• Salts and other minerals evap out of water and put on fields
• The salt left behind poisoned the fields
• Some are still so damaged that you still can’t farm on them
• Neolithic farmers over grazed the Sahara grasslands; now = Sahara dessert
• Arch thought that having a predictable food supply = increase in health
o Looking at skeletal health, you see a decrease in health
o An increase in the amount of labour required to work this food system
o Pop’n increase dramatically because of the sedentary living, women’s birthing becomes closer together
• In hunting / gathering society, infants nursed until 4
• Have a natural form of birth control. Not enough fat stores to nurse
• In farming /sedentary society; mothers are needed out in the fields too
• Child left at home to caregiver at a younger age and eat cereal
• Therefore, mom has more fat stores, better chance at getting pregnant

!Kung San – Kalahari Desert
• Still a hunting gathering group today
• Lived comfortably
o More leisure time
o Worked less than farmers
• May have had a better balanced diet than sedentary ppl
o Sedentary farmers rely heavily on root and cereal crops… not that nutritious


More bad shit….
• Famine is a serious threat to farmers and villagers due to environmental conditions
o Early farmers did mixed farming
 Grain and animals, yet relied heaveliy on cereal crops
• Settled ppl = crowded conditions = more mess/garbage = vermin and parasites
o Poor sanitation = development of infectious disease
o Most of the diseases don’t eff us until we live in close contact to the host
• See development of malnutrition in non hunting groups
o Lots of starch, not much protein
o Eg: long term anemia, slower growth, big increase in dental disease (starch turns to sugar and effs you up), grind grain between stone and stone chips get into food wearing enamel down

Front 63

Food Production vs Hunting/Gathering?

Back 63

Turned to food production when other alternavties weren’t available, food production was last choice
• Eg: Australia
o Had contact with neighbors in new guinea
o Practiced extensive agriculture
 Planted yams (domesticated)
o Even though Australians saw and knew how to plant yams, they chose not too

Front 64

Fertile Crescent-isreal, Lebanon, seria

Back 64

• Area where ppl settled first
• Natufian Culture
o East coast of Africa
o 13,000ya – 9,800ya
o Developed from…
• Kebaran Culture
o Hunting/gathering
o 15,000-13,000ya
o Use of plant materials as food was not important
 Find few materials related to use of plant foods
o Kebaran sites are found in lower areas, closer to water where plants grew
o Found evidence of few grinding stones
o Find some environmental and veggie changes in the region
 Cereal grasses were only able to grow in lower elevations
 No spreading into higher elevations
 Soil is diff in the diff regions
• Lower levels are sandy so cereal crop was quite small
• Higher levels are clayey so get greater yields
• This is where we got the Natufian’s
• Natufians harvested the crops and replanted them
o Also had trees with nuts; gathered those too
o Had a complex hunting and gathering strategy
 Gathered wild cereals (ie: barley) and acorns, almonds and pistachios [all are easily stored and ground up]
 Because spending more time gathering and planting, they start living in 1 area
• Started making larger settlements – more ppl
• Villages had semi sub-terranean houses made up of stone and mud brick (clay + straw into form and bake in sun and get hard)
o Brick outside covered in plaster to protect from rain
• Construct storage pits to store acorns and cereals
• Have tool kits with lots of plant stuff in there
o Grinding slabs, pestels and mortars. Etc

Front 65

• Natufian Culture

Back 65

o East coast of Africa
o 13,000ya – 9,800ya
o Developed from…
• Kebaran Culture
o Also had trees with nuts; gathered those too
o Had a complex hunting and gathering strategy
 Gathered wild cereals (ie: barley) and acorns, almonds and pistachios [all are easily stored and ground up]
 Because spending more time gathering and planting, they start living in 1 area
• Started making larger settlements – more ppl
• Villages had semi sub-terranean houses made up of stone and mud brick (clay + straw into form and bake in sun and get hard)
o Brick outside covered in plaster to protect from rain
• Construct storage pits to store acorns and cereals
• Have tool kits with lots of plant stuff in there
o Grinding slabs, pestels and mortars. Etc

Front 66

Kebaran Culture

Back 66

o Hunting/gathering
o 15,000-13,000ya
o Use of plant materials as food was not important
 Find few materials related to use of plant foods
o Kebaran sites are found in lower areas, closer to water where plants grew
o Found evidence of few grinding stones
o Find some environmental and veggie changes in the region
 Cereal grasses were only able to grow in lower elevations
 No spreading into higher elevations
 Soil is diff in the diff regions
• Lower levels are sandy so cereal crop was quite small
• Higher levels are clayey so get greater yields
• This is where we got the Natufian’s

Front 67

How did Natufian's handle the dead?

Back 67

 At this time, ppn increase lots
 Culture was socially complex
• Buried dead at cemeteries
o Clear sign of social ranking
o Special artifact = …..
 Dentalium seashell
• Given to few burials = elite object
o Elaborate funeral furniture
 Stone bowls found with some ind, but also found with some children
• Again suggesting some kind of social difference. They have status based on status of parents
o Also have stone slab grave covers and markers
 Usually symbols of territorial boundaries, marking ownership of land, based on presence of ancestors
 Between 2 territories were 100’s of burials… very rare
o As climate continues to change about 12,000ya, things are getting drier
 Natufian’s are finding it more necessary to live more permanently near water supplies
 So go near water and valleys…
• Jericho

Front 68

Jericho

Back 68

o While most villages covered a couple acres, Jericho covered at least 10 acres
o Started as a camp by a natural spring; developed into a permanent farming settlement
o Did not have the tech to make clay shit; but did build massive walls around settlement
 Built stone wall around settlement with a tower and the wall was bordered with a ditch the was cut down into the rock
• Ditch was approx 9’ deep and 10’wide
 Inside the wall, ppl built houses out of mud brick; bee hive shaped.
• 1 story in height
• Joined together by lanes
• Had a number of rooms
• Floors were made of black polished plaster
• Inhabited by single family
• Dead buried within the settlement (underneath the house floors)
o Severed the head, buried the body
o Head placed elsewhere by itself or with other heads
 Plaster put on skull and repainted
• Some form of ancestor worship.
• This occurs in many parts of the world
• Eg: S.Africa with the Moche ppl
o They would deflesh the entire skeleton and reform it
 Use branches on leg bones to hold them in place; straw will be used to stuff the body cavity and get fully plastered and painted
 Needed lots of communicationn to build the wall
• Who does what when?
• Requires communal labour
• Needs political shit to do this
 Built the wall for protection against…
• Neighbors
• Protect water supply from others
• Flood control because of amount of deforestation to plant crops

Front 69

Ancient City States

Back 69

Mesopotamia
Sumeria

Front 70

Mesopotamia

Back 70

• Area between tigris and Euphrates river valley
• Developed into first civilization 8,000 – 6500ya
• Ubaid Culture
o Have a lot of complexity looking at their architecture
o Large community
o Presence of social status
o Settlements surrounded by fortification walls
o Dwellings constructed of stone and mud brick
 Have a number of rooms
 Inside/outside courtyards
o Granaries are built
 Communal buildings made to hold excess grain
o Burials show sign of social rankings
o By 6,500 ya, see dramatic changes in that area
 Ppn of communities get into 1000’s of ppl
 See start of localized irrigation projects because more ppl need to be fed now
o Have trade routes with distant ppls
 Trading for exotics (neat and cool. Wanted but not needed; eg ornamental stone, sea shells, obsidian)
 Trade routes extend from Persian gulf to eastern Mediterranean
o Developes into Sumerian Civilization

Front 71

• Site of Uruk

Back 71

o Covers about 2sq. miles
o By 5800ya, reaches status of “Worlds first City”
o Ppn of about 50,000 ppl (built up and had lots of ppl living per house)
o Has a large influence over lots of Mesopotamia
o Has 2 large temples
 In association with the temples, they find simple clay tablets which indicate food distribution is administered from temples
• Therefore have a priest class distributing food to the ppn

Front 72

Sumerian

Back 72

• Came from Ubaids
• Found before Ubaids
• Composed of a number of city states
o Largely autononomous political units
 Has major ppn center (Saskatoon)
 Smaller satellite community (Martensville, and all other small shit)
• Large amount of irrigated crop land
 Hereditary kings rule city states (Mayor)
• Urban and technologically accomplished ppl
• Economically depended on large scale irrigation agriculture and specialized craft production to trade
• Developed the use of wheeled carts and animals to pull the carts
• Sailing boats
• First to refine metals ie: gold, silver, copper
• First to make bronze (copper mized with alloy under heat)
o Used arsenic in making bronze, figured that tin in small amount was better at making bronze and didn’t kill craftsman
o Tin was rare (ie: found in Turkey)
• Artists very well skilled (nice jewelary, textiles, music, sculpture, etc)
• Developed written records
• Counting system based on 6
o Applied it to measureing time
o Developed calendars
• Developed a system of law and becomes basis for later legal codes
• Contributions to literature are put into the bible
• Writing system is one of most significant developments (allows us to learn even more)
o First form is pictographic form but developes into…
o Cuneiform script
 Written script
 Has lines and lots of diff symbols to make words (about 2000 diff symbols used to represent language)
 Written from right to left
 Written on clay tablets when still moist, then use a pen to etch into it; then baked to preserve it
• Suggested that the tablets were fired for logical reasons
o Eg: tax records
• Suggested that if the tablets were left unfired, then easy to erase tax records
 90% of writing concerns economics, legal matters and administrative matters
 Only few specially trained scribes could write, about 4500ya, they start to write literary works
• Stories, poems, recipes
o Adventures of Gilgamesh
 A culture/super hero
• Social stratification present in the burial methods
o Burial of royalty – hereditary kings liked being buried well
o These burials start being plundered except for…

Front 73

o Cuneiform script

Back 73

 Written script
 Has lines and lots of diff symbols to make words (about 2000 diff symbols used to represent language)
 Written from right to left
 Written on clay tablets when still moist, then use a pen to etch into it; then baked to preserve it
• Suggested that the tablets were fired for logical reasons
o Eg: tax records
• Suggested that if the tablets were left unfired, then easy to erase tax records
 90% of writing concerns economics, legal matters and administrative matters
 Only few specially trained scribes could write, about 4500ya, they start to write literary works
• Stories, poems, recipes
o Adventures of Gilgamesh
 A culture/super hero

Front 74

• Site of Ur in 1920

Back 74

o Royal tombs that were not looted
o Excavated by sir Leonard wooly
o About 4500yo
o Resting place of King Arargi and Queen Puabi
o Underground tombs that collapsed therefore protecting against looters
o When king died, queen was buried with him along with the men and women of the court… dressed in their finest and then sealed in the tomb
 Placed in a peaceful pose… maybe drugged
o Ceremonial vessels, tools, instruments, chariots and horses, and servants who took care of horses were found in tomb
o Gold and glass (glass was highly prized)

Front 75

Why did Sumerian cities have brick walls?

Back 75

o Didn’t live well with neighbors
 Fought over land water, slaves, materials, etc.
o Sacred district of each urban centre was at the heart of the city
 Grand temple located here, surrounded by homes of royalty and nobles and then build out from there, lowering status as you get further from center
o Temples were referred to as Ziggurat
 Made of mud brick = artificial mountains
 Stepped pyramids
• Built onto it over time
 Base could be the size of a football field

Front 76

Sargon?

Back 76

• Other cities had in fighting and fell apart; A guy called Sargon coming from Agade led his army down from the north…
o Conquered each city state one by one and establishes the first consolidated empire
o However, it only lasts for a century
 While Sargon was a great ruler, his sons were assholes
 They lost everything quickly