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212 Cards in this Set

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Public relations
Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or failure depends
Advertising
Information placed in the media by an identified sponsor that pays for time or space. It is a controlled method of placing messages in the media.
Brand
A product, service or concept that is publicly distinguished from other products, services or concepts so that it can be easily communicated and usually marketed. A brand name is the name of the distinctive product, service or concept.
Community relations
An area of public relations with responsibilities for building relationships with constituent publics such as schools, charities, clubs and activist interests of the neighborhoods or metropolitan areas(s) where an organization operates. Dealing and communicating with citizens and groups within an organization’s operating area.
Controlled communication channels
Self-sponsored communication channels, media and tools that are under direct control of the sender. Examples include paid advertising, newsletters, brochures, some types of e-mails, organizational websites and blogs, leaflets, organizational broadcasts and podcasts, intranets, teleconferences and videoconferences, meetings, speeches, position papers, and all other channels and communication products under organizational control.
Counseling
Advising management concerning policies, relations and communications.
Crisis communication
Protects and defends an individual, company or organization facing a public challenge to its reputation. These challenges can involve legal, ethical or financial standing.
Employee relations
Activities designed to build sound relationships between an organization and its employees, and a critical element in fostering positive attitudes and behavior of employees as ambassadors for the organization.
Financial relations
An aspect of public relations responsible for building relationships with investor publics, including shareholders/stockholders, potential investors, financial analysts, the financial markets (such as the stock exchanges and commodities exchanges), and the Securities and Exchange Commission. Dealing and communicating with the shareholders of an organization and the investment community. Also known as investor relations or shareholder relations.
Government relations
An aspect of relationship-building between an organization and government at local, state, and/or national levels, especially involving flow of information to and from legislative and regulatory bodies in an effort to influence public policy decisions compatible with the organization’s interests. Dealing and communicating with legislatures and government agencies on behalf of an organization. Also see Public Affairs and Lobbying.
Grassroots organizing
An activist practice for creating social change among average people. Grassroots organizing is based on the power of the people to take collective action on their own behalf. This public relations technique is often used to sway public opinion and move legislators to action. Grasstops uses the same strategy, but with community influencers.
Issues management
The proactive process of anticipating, identifying, evaluating and responding to public policy issues that affect organizations and their publics now and in the future.
Lobbying
The specialized area of public relations that builds and maintains relations with a government or its officials for the primary purpose of influencing legislation and regulation. Also see Government Relations and Public Affairs.
Marketing
The management function that identifies human needs and wants, offers products and services to satisfy those demands, and causes transactions that deliver products and services in exchange for something of value to the provider. Targets customers.
Marketing communications
A combination of activities designed to sell a product, service or idea, including advertising, collateral materials, interactive communications, publicity, promotion, direct mail, trade shows and special events.
Media relations
Mutually beneficial associations between publicists or public relations professionals and members of media organizations as a condition for reaching audiences with messages of news or features of interest. Maintaining up-to-date lists of media people and a knowledge of media audience interests are critical to the function. Dealing with communication media in seeking publicity or responding to their interest in the organization.
Multicultural relations/workplace diversity
Relating with people in various cultural groups.
Understanding multicultural and workplace diversity continues to increase in importance. Diversity in the workplace continues to provide challenges and opportunities to public relations practitioners and other managers impacting messaging, perceptions of ideas, and services. These considerations may include issues of household composition, ages, gender, ethnic and religious backgrounds, language, technology
fluency, health status or disabilities.
Press agentry
Creating newsworthy stories and events to attract media attention
Proactive public relations
: Taking the initiative to develop and apply public relations plans to achieve measurable results toward set goals and objectives. Also see Reactive Public Relations.
Promotion
Activities designed to win publicity or attention, especially the staging of special events to generate media coverage. Special activities designed to create and stimulate interest in a person, product, organization or cause.
Propaganda
Persuasion based on appeals rather than on the merits of a case. Often gives only one side of an argument, making it deceitful and not in the public interest.
Propaganda devices:
Glittering generalities (broad statements)
Name calling (emotions)
Transfer (guilt by association)
Bandwagon (everybody’s doing it)
Plain folks (anti-elitism)
Testimonials (if irrelevant)
Card stacking (one-sided)
Public affairs
A specialized area of public relations that builds and maintains mutually beneficial governmental and local community relations. Also applies to the military and governmental agencies due to the 1913 Gillett Amendment. Also see Lobbying and Government Relations.
Public information
Representation of a point of view in collected forms such as facts, news, messages, pictures or data; the process of disseminating such information to publics usually through the mass media; a designation describing persons charged with the task of such dissemination usually on behalf of government agencies, nonprofit organizations, colleges or universities.
Publicity
Information from an outside source that is used by the media because it has news value. It is an uncontrolled method of placing messages because the source does not pay the media for placement.
Reactive public relations
Response to crises and putting out fires defensively rather than initiating programs. There are varying degrees of reactive public relations with some situations requiring implementation of an organization’s crisis plan. Also see Proactive Public Relations.
Reputation Management
Reputation management has long been a function of public relations, which is often cited in the context of crisis management. The increased use of the Internet and related social media has given added urgency to the practice, as the immediate and anonymous nature of the Web increases the risk of communications that can damage an organization’s reputation. Online reputation management is a growing specialized segment of public relations.
Special events
Stimulating an interest in a person, product or organization by means of a focused
“happening.” Activities designed to interact with publics and listen to them.
Uncontrolled communications channels
Uncontrolled communications channels refer to the media that are not under direct control of the company, organization or sender of messages. These include newspapers and magazines, radio and television, external websites, externally produced blogs and social media commentary, and externally produced news stories.
Copyright law
Two major goals of copyright laws are to protect the original creator of the work and to provide economic incentive for new knowledge. The statutory definition expresses that copyright exists in “original works of authorship in any tangible medium of expression. . . from which they can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated” (17 U.S. Constitution, Sec. 102, as noted in Broom,
2009, EPR, p. 157). Any written sources that are not original should be cited in following works. In addition, Internet references also should adhere to traditional copyright procedures for securing appropriate permissions and/or indicate proper citations.
Common law copyright
An author who creates a tangible expression of his or her ideas immediately acquires common law copyright of the work. This right continues until the author dedicates work to the public by a general publication, or surrenders common law right to obtain specific statutory copyright protection. The purpose of copyright law is to protect an author’s intellectual production. The dividing line between common law copyright and statutory copyright is publication. Statutory copyright is a legal word or act—the act by which the author makes the work available to the world while retaining control of the creative expression.

Two types of publication exist. General publication is any overt act that indicates the intention to surrender one’s right to control one’s creative expression and allow the public to copy the material. If there is a general publication and the author has not obtained statutory copyright and does not use the copyright symbol, ©, he has no further right to prevent the use by the public. Limited publication, such as delivery of a manuscript to a possible purchaser, does not cause the author to lose any common law rights.
Statutory copyright
To obtain statutory copyright, an author must submit to the Library of Congress and display the copyright symbol © on the material. Creative expression of ideas is subject to copyright.

Securing a statutory copyright is simple. Notice/use of the copyright symbol must be on the very first copy sold or publicity distributed.
Ownership of copyright for photography and artwork
The contract between your organization and the non-employee who takes photos or creates artwork determines who owns the copyright. The copyright owner determines use and the cost of use of the creative work. Be clear about the ownership of both the negatives and hard copies of photos or artwork in the contract you develop with your legal counsel. The organization owns an employees’ work done on behalf of the organization.
Defamation
Defamation is untruth that damages a reputation. Written or pictorial defamation is known as libel; spoken or verbal defamation is known as slander and need not be spoken in a public setting. To qualify as defamation, the statement must be untrue. To be defamed or damaged, an exposed person or organization must prove three conditions were present: hatred, contempt, ridicule. Damage must also be proven. Reports of official proceedings are privileged and cannot be charged with libel (see fair comment below). To be actionable for libel, five elements must be present: defamation, identification, communications (publication/broadcast), fault (malice or negligence), and damage (in absence of fault, provable damages or injury). Since a public figure puts himself or herself out before the public, actual malice must be proven by a public figure.
Fair comment
This privilege insulates a reporter or publication against defamation (libel or slander). Not a license to circulate derogatory information, the information must be related to community interest with the subject. Fair comment is a recognized defense against a libel action, based on the argument that the statement was either true or privileged (taken from a public document). Be aware that although truth is the traditional defense against libel, truth is hard to prove. Fair comment, which involves privacy, should not be confused with fair use, which involves copyright.

Libel has four defenses: truth, privilege, fair comment (all defined above) and retraction. Retraction is a full and prompt apology that helps mitigate damages.
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA)
A U.S. digital rights management (DRM) law enacted on Oct. 28, 1998, created an updated version of copyright laws to deal with the special challenges of regulating digital material. Broadly, the aim of DMCA is to protect the rights of both copyright owners and consumers.
Fair use
This law allows use or parts of copyrighted materials without violating copyright laws and without paying a royalty or fee when used for: criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching, scholarship or research. Drawing the line as to what is fair use is one of the most difficult problems of copyright law. Fair use originally applied to printed works. With the advent of digital technology and the Internet, fair use now also applies to the redistribution of music, photographs, videos and software. Fair use is usually determined on the special facts of each case. If you begin to question how you’re using something or how much you’re using, be cautious. Public relations professionals should note that fair use does not apply to commercial use. Fair use that involves copyright should not be confused with fair comment that involves privacy.
Foreign Agents Registration Act of 1938
Public relations practitioners working for any “foreign principals” must register under this act, whether they are directly lobbying U.S. government officials or not. The Lobbying Disclosure Act of 1995 also relates to the above act in a broad context requiring anyone in a public relations or related position representing a foreign government to register and label lobbying materials as “political propaganda”
Intellectual property
This legal term describes rights or entitlements that apply to the ownership and use of certain types of information, ideas or other concepts in an expressed form.
New York Times v. Sullivan
This ruled that actual malice must be proven by a public figure.
Right of privacy
This law, important for public relations professionals to know, ensures an individual’s right to be left alone and can be violated if names, likeness, and/or information is used for commercial purposes. It differs from defamation and is a practical effort to protect the individual who does not relish the unexpected appearance of his or her picture, story or testimonial in the public media. The publication need only injure the feelings of the person, even though it may not have any effect on his or her reputation. Many violations evolve from advertising, which is deemed worse than articles because of the potential for direct profit. Securing permission from the individual protects the public relations professional. While use of employee photos in employee publications isn’t specifically covered, it is a good idea to protect your employees’ right of privacy by obtaining signed waivers.
The Four torts (or kinds of wrongful acts or damages) to privacy
Appropriation: Taking of some element of a person’s name or likeness for advertising or trade purposes without consent, such as using a celebrity’s photo without permission and signed releases.

Intrusion: Invading a person’s solitude, such as taping without permission.

Public disclosure of embarrassing private facts: Truth is not necessarily a defense here (medical information, sex-crime victim identity, name of juvenile offender, embarrassing poses). Reputation need not be harmed.

False light: Putting a person in a false position before the public, misleading the public to make a person appear other than he or she is (misrepresentation). Reputation need not be harmed.
Slavish copying
This term is used for extensive word-for-word copying. One can use the idea, but not the creative expression of the idea. For a violation, copying must be exact, word for word. Paraphrasing is not a violation, but without attribution, it does raise ethical concerns. Speeches quoting the ideas of another can lead to copyright violation.
Planning Steps
Goals, audiences, objectives, strategies and tactics
Goals
These refer to longer-term, broad, more global, future statement of “being.” Goals may include how an organization is uniquely distinguished in the minds of its target publics.
Objectives
There is a focus here on shorter-term, defines WHAT behavior, attitude or opinion you want to achieve from specific audiences, how much to achieve, and when to achieve. Objectives should be: Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Audience Specific, Relevant, Results (Outcome) Oriented, Time- Specific.
Outcome objectives
Outcome objectives change behavior, awareness, opinion, support. Outcome objectives require high- level strategic thinking. “Differentiate between measuring public relations “outputs,” generally short- term and surface (e.g. amount of press coverage) and measuring public relations “outcomes,” usually more far-reaching and carrying greater impact (changing awareness, attitudes, and even behavior) (Seital, 2001, 145).
Process objectives
Process objectives serve to “inform” or “educate.”
Outputs
Outputs measure activities, e.g., number of contacts or news releases. Output can help monitor your work but have no direct value in measuring the effectiveness of a campaign.
Strategies
These serve as a road map or approach to reach objectives. (This includes communication strategies that target publics for change and action strategies that focus on organizations’ internal changes.)
Tactics
Tactics/tools: These serve as specific elements of a strategy or specific tools, more specifically “how to.” Examples include meetings, publications, tie-ins, community events, news releases, etc.
Content Analysis
Content analysis is the objective, systematic and quantitative description and evaluation of the content of documents, including print media and broadcast media coverage. In content analysis, we attempt to objectively code and describe the content of communication. Content analysis involves selecting a unit of analysis, defining categories, sampling and coding.
Survey Research
Survey research is a quantitative method that uses a series of written, verbal, or online questions to sample a desired “universe”—a population or group of people. The important part of this method is developing questions that answer your research question without threatening the people you are surveying. Surveys can be mailed, e-mailed, telephoned, asked in person, or completed online. The techniques used for these different survey formats vary widely.
Survey advantages
Planned correctly, a survey makes it easy for the person to participate.

People participating can remain anonymous.

The same questions can be asked in several ways to double-check the response for accuracy.

You can place questions in a sequence that will help get answers for even threatening subject matter.

Survey answers that can be quantified can be analyzed by a computer and tabulated rapidly in multiple ways.

You can pre-mail a product and follow up with a survey.

Surveys can be used in a variety of forms: in-person interviews, written documents and telephone questionnaires.
Survey disadvantages
People surveyed may not answer all questions.

People who respond may not be part of the universe you intended to sample.

If you use open-ended questions, it is unlikely that you can statistically analyze them and tabulating by hand is labor and time intensive.

It is easy for people to give habitual responses.

People don’t necessarily return surveys.

Costs to mail a survey and provide return mail, and for gimmicks, can be expensive.

People won’t write a lot.

People can and do lie.

If open-ended questions are not specific enough, the answers will be too broad.

You can’t test knowledge with mailed surveys.
Census
A 100 percent sample. Identify all the people in your universe and give each one an opportunity to respond. Especially useful with small well-defined populations. If your universe is under 300, consider a census.
Probability samples
A scientific sample drawn in such a way that the probability of being chosen is equal or is known. A random sample is a good example.
Nonprobability samples
More informal selection of persons to be interviewed.

types:
Convenience or accidental. Drop by the company cafeteria and ask questions of whomever you find there.

Quota. In a school, find 10 elementary teachers, 10 middle school teachers, and 10 high school teachers. Any 10 of each kind.

Dimensional. Identify a specific number of male or female employees, employees in clerical or technical jobs, employees who are married or single, or some combination of characteristics such as married female technical workers. Any employee is acceptable if he or she matches the dimensions.

Snowball. You may know only a few users of a certain type of computer, but they probably know other users. You contact the first few and ask them for names of others. Proceed in successive waves of questioning to find the universe you desire.

Purpose. Identify a sample that suits your purpose. For a quick check among music lovers, do intercept surveys in the lobby before a symphony concert. For opinions of golfers, hang out at the 19th hole and buttonhole people. For business executives, choose a specific location or industry and contact staff officers identified in annual reports of selected companies.
Focus groups
Focus group interviews are focused discussions led by a moderator and involving eight to 12 participants each. This observation technique is popular for marketing and public relations research. It is qualitative research.
Scientific method
Scientific method: Principles and procedures for the systematic pursuit of data through replicable observation and experiment, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses, comparison against standards and provisions for replication; objective; empirical; predictive.
Scientific Method Research Procedures
1. Select a problem.
2. Review existing research and theory (when relevant).
3. Develop hypotheses or research questions.
4. Determine an appropriate methodology/research design.
5. Collect relevant data.
6. Analyze and interpret the results.
7. Present the results in appropriate form.
8. Replicate the study (when necessary).
Attitude
An inclination, often unconscious, to behave in a given way as a result of a spectrum of information, values, beliefs, experiences and persuasive messages. An attitude is a person’s evaluation of an object, situation or issue. Attitudes drive behavior. Once attitudes are influenced, new behaviors will follow.
Audience segmentation
The breakdown of an audience into demographic, psychographic or other dimensions in order to adapt strategies, tactics and messages to audience need or interest.
Baseline data
Data collected before or at the beginning of a project or program. The data will be compared to data collected during and after program implementation in order to assess program effectiveness.
Benchmarking
Comparison of one’s products and services to those of competitors or those recognized as the “best in the industry” to identify standards for improvement or superior performance. Sometimes the term is used to signify milestones or progress achieved during the life of a project.
Communications audit
A complete analysis of an organization’s communications processes, both internal and external. The audit is designed to reveal how an organization wants to be perceived by designated publics, what it is doing to foster that perception and how it is actually perceived.
Content analysis
A study of publications, print and electronic media reports, speeches and letters to measure, codify, analyze and/or evaluate the coverage of an organization, its people and its activities. In a strict sense, content analysis uses a rigorous, statistical methodology. But in many cases, it is less formally structured.
Descriptive research
Collecting information that describes existing conditions, the status quo of individuals, group opinions, attitude or behavior. Usually designed to test a theory or hypothesis.
Evaluation research
Process of evaluating concepts, design, plan, implementation and effectiveness of a program. Used to learn what happened and why it happened.
Formal research
Uses principles of scientific investigation such as the rules of empirical observation, random sampling in surveys, comparison of results against statistical standards, in order to replicate results. If done correctly, allows accurate statements about publics based on evidence drawn from scientifically representative samples. Clear objectives and purpose are a must.
Formative research
Gathering information for use in making decisions prior to a program or making adjustments in a program/plan during implementation.
Gantt chart
A bar chart that shows the visual and linear direction of project tasks useful for tracking deadlines and monitoring a project’s progress, as well as for planning and scheduling tasks. It visually lays out the order in which tasks will be carried out. It can identify resources needed for each task. It always shows a start and finish date and may identify team-member responsibilities.
Goal
Statement that spells out the overall outcomes of a program, usually a more specific expression of a mission or purpose that is directly related to the problem or opportunity at hand. Often related to one aspect of the mission or purpose. Commonly described as the desired outcome of a communication plan.

Examples: To increase public use of mass transit. To introduce people in developing countries to multi-yield agricultural practices.
Historical research
Collecting information that exists on the record, including historic documents, personal papers, journals, official records, etc.
Informal or nonscientific research
Can look at values or qualities; subjective. Good for pre-testing formal strategies; exploratory. Findings cannot be projected to represent an entire audience or population. Provides an early warning signal and often used to inform formal scientific research.

Examples: Personal interviews, community forums, call-in phone lines, field reports.
Mission or mission statement
The overarching reason why an organization came into existence; a visionary statement that can guide an organization’s purpose and planning for many years.
Objective
: The key result that must be achieved with each public to reach the program goal. Specific milestones that measure progress toward achievement of a goal. Objectives must do the following.

1. Address desired result in terms of opinion change and/or behavioral outcome, not in terms of communication output.

2. Designate the public or publics among whom the behavioral outcome is to occur.

3. Specify the expected level of accomplishment.

4. Identify the time frame for these accomplishments to occur.
Omnibus survey or study
A less expensive quantitative research method that involves piggybacking some questions on a research company’s poll. Also called subscription studies. National studies made up of clusters of questions proprietary to particular clients.
Opinion
An expression of an attitude. Public opinion is the composite of all the people who make up a public.
Outcomes
Measurable result of change in action, attitude, awareness, behavior, opinion, support.
Outputs
Measure of tools, tactics or activities supporting a plan or project.

Example: Number of news releases, media reports, number of trade shows attended, etc.
Population
Individuals whose opinions are sought in a survey. The population can be as broad as every adult in the United States or as focused as liberal Democrats who live in the Fifth Ward of Chicago and voted in the last election. The sample is drawn to reflect the population, which is sometimes called the universe.
Positioning
The process of managing how an organization distinguishes itself with a unique meaning in the mind of its publics – that is, how it wants to be seen and known among its publics, especially as distinguished from its competitors.
Primary research
Investigation or data collecting first-hand; or by a third party contracted specifically for the firsthand party. Research you do yourself.
Problem statement
A brief summary of the problem written in present tense, describing the situation.
The statement typically answers these specific questions, as presented in Broom.
1. What is the source of concern?
2. Where is it a problem?
3. When is it a problem?
4. Who does it involve or affect?
5. How are they involved or affected?
6. Why is this a concern to the organization and its publics? (2009, EPR, p. 274)
Proportional sampling
A method used to ensure that a survey sample contains representatives of each subset in the population being studied, according to the proportion of their representation in the universe.

Example: If 53 percent of a certain population were women, a proportional sample would contain 53 percent women.
Publics
People or groups of people who are mutually involved or interdependent with an organization.
Qualitative research
Research that is somewhat subjective, using a problem or open-ended, free- response format to investigate the value of programs or probe other questions, usually informal. Descriptive; not measurable; looks at how and why; also known as exploratory research. Yields an in- depth understanding of an issue.

Example: Focus groups
Quantitative research
Research that can be numerically stated or compared; may use statistical standards; highly objective and projectable; uses closed-end or forced-choice questions. Factual, numerical, mostly one-way questions with short responses that have precise and conclusive outcomes.
Random sample
Each person in a large group has an equal chance of being chosen.
Reliability
The extent to which a survey, test or measuring procedure yields the same results on repeated trials.
Research
Systematic gathering of information for the purpose of describing and understanding situations, and checking out assumptions about public and public relations consequences. It helps define the problem.
Respondent
In polling, a person who participates in a survey or poll by answering questions.
Risk assessment
In crisis public relations planning, the determination of the chance of various
occurrences in order to take steps to handle such incidents in the order of their probability. Related to the larger function of Risk Management that uses the outcome of risk assessment to plan and execute strategies to deal with such risks.
Risk management
The process of measuring, or assessing risk and developing strategies to manage it. See
Risk Assessment.
Sample
A portion of a larger whole; in polling, a relatively small group of individuals selected to represent a population, usually by means of random probability sampling techniques which allows for the calculation of the exact probability of such representation.
Secondary research
Secondary research: Uses research findings of others, or collects information secondhand. Examination of research previously conducted by others.

Examples: National or regional studies, studies by trade associations used by members in the industry, etc.
Situational analysis
Information pulled together to define a situation (e.g., history, factors affecting a situation, people involved, etc). Contains all information needed to write a problem statement.
Stakeholder
Sometimes used to refer to investors, but includes others who have invested time, job seniority, commitment to the organization or are otherwise dependent on an organization in a sense other than financial. A person or group with a stake or interest. One who is affected by an organization.
Strategy
Overall game plan. The overall concept, approach or general plan for the program designed to achieve the objectives. General, well-thought-out tactical plans flow from strategy. Strategies do not indicate specific actions to achieve objectives. There can be multiple strategies for each objective.

Examples: Demonstrate that riding public transportation to work is an attractive alternative to driving. Choose communication vehicles that can be understood by a population with limited education.
Strategic thinking
Involves predicting or establishing a desired future state; formulating a strategy for achieving the desired state.
Summative research
Gathering information as a way of monitoring a program to document the effectiveness of the whole program or its parts.
Tactics/tools
The exact tools and activities used at the operational level. The actual events, media and methods used to implement the strategy. Specific activities conducted to implement strategies of a public relations program. Tactics/tools involve use of selected personnel, time, cost and other organizational resources. Tactics achieve the objectives and, in turn, support the goals that have been set to carry out the mission or purpose of the organization.
Trend Analysis
Tracking and analysis of trends in the media, marketplace, and overall environment in order to prepare and respond as changes occur
Validity
Refers to the degree to which a research study accurately assesses what the researcher set out to measure. Researchers assess external and internal validity. External validity refers to the extent to which results of the study can be transferred to other settings or groups. Internal validity assesses the study’s methodology and alternative explanations for study results.
Cause and effect diagrams
Helps managers analyze a particular problem by thinking through the reasons a problem exists. Also known as Fishbone Diagrams.
Diversity
Differences among people within a group, stemming from variations in factors such as age, gender, ethnicity, religion, sexual preference, education, etc.
Environmental scanning
Careful monitoring of an organization’s internal and external environments for detecting early signs of opportunities and threats that may influence its current and future plans. In comparison, “surveillance” is confined to a specific objective or a narrow sector.
Drill-down technique
A problem-solving approach that gives planners a visual image of a problem by breaking the problem into progressively smaller parts. By examining factors that contribute to the problem, information relating to the problem and questions raised by the problem, communication experts can identify best solutions to respond to the many parts of a problem.
Line management function
In an organizational structure, line management functions are often limited to product- and profit-producing functions that increase the bottom line such as: engineering, production and marketing. Senior public relations positions should fall within this function area to help set the
course and direction of products and services, programs and initiatives.
Managing diversity
Achieved when a business recognizes the strengths and specific needs/preferences of its diverse publics and employees and chooses strategies based on these strengths and perspectives.
Porter’s five forces
This decision-making tool helps to assess where power and weaknesses lie and assumes that there are five important forces that affect competition: supplier power, buyer power, competitive rivalry, threat of substitution and threat of new entry.
Staff management function
Staff management functions provide advice and counsel to those in line management positions.
SWOT analysis
: Helps a company understand its Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats.
Organizations use SWOT analysis for business planning, strategic planning, competitor evaluation, marketing, business and product development, and research reports.
Business literacy
Business literacy is the ability to use financial and business information as the basis for decisions that help an organization achieve success.
10-K (annual report)
This report provides a comprehensive overview of a company. The 10-K must be filed within 60 days after the close of the company’s fiscal year and contains crucial information, such as company history, organizational structure, equity, holdings, earnings per share, subsidiaries, etc. Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition (MD&A) is a must-read. It is here that companies list strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) facing the company and its industry. The financial footnotes often contain detailed information, such as sales by geographic region. Also, the Corporate Exhibits include information such as specific agreements for labor contracts, non- compete agreements, golden parachutes for executives, and some contracts for key employees.
10-Q (quarterly report)
The 10-Q is a quarterly financial report containing unaudited financial data. The
10-Q is due 35 days after the close of each of the first three fiscal quarters. There is no filing after the fourth quarter because that is when the 10-K is filed.
8-K (current report)
The 8-K filings are filed for unscheduled material or corporate events of importance to the shareholders and SEC. This is a great report to read to determine any significant problems the company may be facing, such as litigation, executive malfeasance, or other problems. In addition to the 8- K filing for your own company, it is good to review filings for publicly traded competitors, suppliers and industry peers because their filings may include indicators of problems facing the entire industry or product category, and these filings can provide an early warning for potential litigation against your company.
Proxy statement
The Proxy Statement (sometimes referred to as Form Def 14A) is a document produced for the benefit of shareholders prior to the Annual Meeting of Shareholders so that they can make informed decisions about matters due to be discussed at the Annual Meeting. Issues covered in a proxy statement can include proposals for new additions to the board of directors, information on directors’
and executives’ salaries, information on bonus and options plans for directors and key managers, and any declarations made by company management.
Regulation Fair Disclosure, Regulation FD or Reg FD
Adopted in August 2000, Regulation Fair Disclosure requires that all publicly traded companies disclose material information to all investors at the same time. Material, nonpublic information now must be disclosed to small investors at the same time that it is given to stock analysts, other securities market professional and large institutional investors. Regulation FD also opened quarterly analyst conference calls to small investors. Subscriber services such as www.Bestcalls.com/ provide a directory of conference calls, and several other companies offer webcasting technology and services that companies can use to allow all investors to listen in. For more information about Regulation Fair Disclosure, go to www.sec.gov/answers/regfd.htm.
Sarbanes Oxley
Sarbanes Oxley legislation covers corporate auditing accountability, responsibility and transparency. Provisions within this law affect how information is disclosed and, therefore, intersects with the practice of public relations. Public companies are required to evaluate and disclose the effectiveness of their internal financial reporting controls, accelerated insider training reporting and blackout periods. Knowledge of what and when one’s company must disclose is critical to executing public relations responsibilities.
The Securities Act of 1933 and the Security Exchange Act of 1934
The Securities Act of 1933 and the Security Exchange Act of 1934 were enacted following the 1929 stock market crash. These acts contain checks and balances for securities-related actions and remain in place today. The need for such legislation grew out of abuses in the securities industry—investors’ and brokers’ devious practices were destroying small investors.
Rule 5c of the Security Act of 1933
Rule 5c of the Security Act of 1933 deals with the registration of securities and led to the embargo of publicity materials during a specific timeframe—frequently called “gag period” —because these materials could be construed as an effort to sell a new security. The gag period is in effect from the date a corporation officially registers its intent to offer a security, or to a date 90 days after the registration statement becomes effective. SEC rules demand that the only direct selling of the stock by the corporation take place through a registration statement and prospectus, both of which are first reviewed by the SEC. Corporations who use news releases, ads, etc. to sell their stock during this period risk their organization’s reputation and lawsuits. No comments or written statements on future sales or earnings projections, predictions, estimates, or similar information can be given during this period. Note: The gag period should not be confused with a blackout. Several types of blackouts exist in contracts, policies and business activities. Two common types of blackouts public relations professionals should be aware of especially are those related to employee benefits and
political campaigns. A common HR blackout is a temporary period in which access, often to retirement or investment funds, is limited or denied. Normally, a blackout is in place for about 60 days during which employees can’t modify their retirement or investment plans because the plan is being restructured/altered or undergoing some administrative change, such as a change in fund manager or financial institution. Notice
must be given to employees in advance of a pending blackout. In addition, a blackout can refer to a political party’s restriction on advertising for a set amount of time before an election.
The Security Exchange Act of 1934
The Security Exchange Act of 1934 mandates disclosure. While the actual legislation says little specifically about publicity, the regulations apply to how we practice public relations. The real aim is to level the playing field for all investors. The law requires filing specific information with the SEC to make it available to the public. The prospectus of a new security fulfills this requirement. A prospectus is a legal document that is written/checked by lawyers and must be complete, including potential negatives. The SEC laws don’t specifically enforce or prompt timely disclosure—the rules of the stock exchanges do.
Rule 10 b-5 of SEC 1934
Rule 10 b-5 of SEC 1934 concerns fraud in disclosure. An organization has the legal responsibility to ensure the information it releases is both accurate and complete. This applies to all publications, including speeches, releases and all published materials.
Section 14 of the Act of 1934
Section 14 of the Act of 1934 covers solicitation of proxies in the timeframe between sending the official statement and holding the annual meeting where the proxy voting occurs. Since a specific number of proxies or attendees is required for a vote to be held, companies can use ads, news releases, speeches, etc. to secure the required proxies or attendees. However, the solicitation must be filed with the SEC no later than the date of use. The purpose of proxy rules is to prevent false and misleading statements from affecting shareholders’ judgment. Any public utterance made during the proxy period could be construed as an additional solicitation of proxies. The public relations professional needs to monitor executive speeches, correspondence, etc. for potential solicitation and ensure filing with the SEC.
Insider trading
A 1963 SEC study of the securities market further defined insider trading, material information and violations. Insider trading encourages timely disclosure of material information in a further attempt to level the playing field between small and large investors. The study showed concrete examples of how public relations professionals were using news media to disseminate false and misleading information or deliberately withholding information from news media. Material information generally is defined as any information that would cause a reasonable and prudent investor to buy or sell stock.
Anti-trust
Sherman/Clayton Act and Robinson Putnam Act make it illegal to engage in activity that ruins competition. Overselling wording in news releases announcing acquisitions and divestitures can be cited as violations.
Federal Lobbying Act (1913)
Federal Lobbying Act (1913) states lobbyists must register with the clerk of the house or the secretary of the senate between the first and tenth day of each quarter. A lobbyist is required to file a report stating the amount of money he or she received during the previous quarter for lobbying activities. The lobbyist is also required to reveal names of publications in which he or she has had published an article or editorial on behalf of the person or organization for which he or she is lobbying. This does not apply to newspapers, etc. in the regular course of business. A violation is a misdemeanor resulting in a
fine up to $5,000 and imprisonment up to 12 months. Cases indicate that this act applies only if a person is aiding in the passage or defeat of legislation, which public relations professionals often do. Legal statutes vary by state.
Political contributions
Federal Corrupt Practices Act of 1925, Hatch Act of 1939 and the Taft-Hartley Act govern labor relations management and made it illegal for organizations, including unions, to make political contributions in connection with elections to any political office or for any candidate to receive such a contribution. But organizations and unions can form political action committees (PACs), which are legal because they’re funded by employees, union members, etc., and, not the organization itself.
Registering as a foreign agent
Registration of Foreign Agents Act of 1938 requires public relations professionals who represent a foreign government to register with the US government. Anyone who acts in the US as an agent of a federal government without proper registration can suffer stiff penalty: fined up to $5,000 and imprisonment for up to 10 years or both. They also must report under oath every six months the names of the foreign interests for whom they work, the activities they carry out, and where they get and how they spend their money. This law grew out of Fulbright hearings on Carl Byoir and Associates’ representation of Nazis and changed how public relations is practiced. With the expansion of our world economy, the potential for involvement with a foreign government has increased dramatically.
401(k) and 403(b) retirement plans
Voluntary retirement plans for employees of profit and public/not-for-profit organizations are known as 401(k) and 403(b) plans respectively. These employer- sponsored retirement plans allow a worker to elect to save for retirement while deferring income taxes on the saved money and earnings until withdrawal. Employees select from a number of investment options.
Cafeteria benefit plan
A cafeteria plan allows employees to choose from among different types of benefits. Cafeteria plans may include benefits such as health insurance, group-term life insurance and flexible spending accounts. Typically, these plans allow an employee to pay for these benefits through a salary reduction agreement, similar to a payroll deduction. Deductions under such agreements are often called pre-tax deductions; they are not subject to income tax, or in most cases, FICA.
Defined benefit plan
This retirement plan promises the employee a specific monthly benefit. The employee usually is not required to contribute to this plan in the private sector; however, in the public sector, employee contributions are required. Sometimes referred to as a fully-funded pension plan, the employee is not required to make investment decisions.
Defined contribution plan
This retirement plan creates an individual account for each employee. The benefit the employee receives is based on the amount contributed and affected by income, expenses, gains and losses. Two common types of defined contribution plans are the 401(k) and 403(b) plans.
Pension plan
Pension plans are forms of retirement plans that provide income after retirement or disability. Pensions can be created for employees by companies, not-for-profit organizations, labor unions, the government, etc. Other organizations also can fund pensions.
Roth retirement plan
Roth plans also allow you to save for retirement. If you meet certain criteria, you can invest on an after-tax basis and the earnings are tax-free when you withdraw them.
Balance sheet
Compare the balance sheet to a photograph. The balance sheet shows a firm’s assets, liabilities and equity at a given point. A firm’s assets are listed in their order of liquidity, as are the firm’s liabilities. The balance sheet always balances because assets must equal liabilities plus owner’s equity.
Income statement
: Compare the income statement to a video. It measures a firm’s profitability over a period of time. The firm can choose the length of its reporting time period, such as a month, a quarter or a year. The income statement shows gross income, revenues, expenses and net income. It is important to recognize that an income statement includes both cash items, such as cash sales as income, and non-cash items, such as credit card sales as income, and depreciation as expense. An income statement is often called a profit/loss or P&L statement.
Statement of cash flow
This is the third major financial statement required of all publicly-traded corporations. Compare the statement of cash flow to a video. It shows how cash flows in and out of a company over a given period of time. This statement shows positive or negative cash flow in operating, investing and financing activity. For example, selling stock generates cash and is a positive cash flow.
Web Address
The unique location of [1] an Internet server, [2] a specific file (for example, a Web page), or [3] an e-mail user. It is also used to specify the location of data within computer storage.
Anonymous Web surfing
Visiting websites without allowing anyone to gather information about which sites the user visited. Services are available that provide anonymity, disable pop-up windows and cookies, and conceal the visitor’s IP address, i.e., your e-mail address.
Audiocast
Audio content broadcasted over the Internet. The term serves as a broad descriptor for any audio content, including streaming audio, podcasts or other distribution methods.
Blog
Short for weblog; a personal online journal that is frequently updated and intended for general public consumption. Blogs are defined by their format: a series of entries posted to a single page in reverse- chronological order. Blogs generally represent the personality of the author or reflect the purpose of the website that hosts the blog.
Bookmark
A saved link to a Web page
Breadcrumb trail
On a website, a navigation tool that allows a user to see where the current page is in relation to the website’s hierarchy.
Cascading style sheet
Cascading style sheet: Or CSS; determines how a given element is presented on a Web page. CSS gives more control over the appearance of a Web page to the page creator than to the browser designer or the viewer.
Channel
A group of items, each of which represents one post (i.e., a blog post or MP3 audio file). You subscribe to the channel when subscribing to podcasts. Channel is used interchangeably with feed on many websites; may also be referred to as a “feed.”
Chat room
A Web-based venue for communities of users with a common interest to communicate in real time. Forums and discussion groups, in comparison, allow users to post messages but don’t have the capacity for interactive messaging. Users can enter chat rooms and read messages without sending any—a practice known as lurking.
Chicklet
A term for the small, often orange buttons used as links to RSS files. Most podcatchers allow a user to “drag and drop” chicklets directly onto them to easily add a subscription.
Content management system
Content management system: Or CMS; a system used to manage website content in lieu of commercially available code-based Web design software. The features of a CMS system vary, but most include Web-based publishing, format management, revision control, indexing, search and retrieval.
Cookie
Information a website puts on your hard disk so that it can remember something about you at a later time. Typically, a cookie records your preferences when you use a particular site.
Counter
On a website, a program that counts and typically displays how many people have visited an HTML page (usually the home page). Many sites include a counter, either as a matter of interest or to show that the site is popular.
Cybersquatting
According to the U.S. Anti-Cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act, cybersquatting is registering, trafficking in or using a domain name with bad-faith intent to profit from the goodwill of a trademark or celebrity belonging to someone else.
Digitization
The process of converting information into a digital format. In this format, information is organized into discrete units of data (called bits) that can be separately addressed (usually in multiple-bit groups called bytes). This is the binary data that computers and many devices with computing capacity (such as digital cameras and digital hearing aids) can process.
FAQ
FAQ: A list of “frequently asked questions” (and answers) that has become a common feature of Internet sites.
File transfer protocol
File transfer protocol: Or FTP. A standard Internet protocol and the simplest way to exchange files between computers on the Internet. FTP is commonly used to transfer Web page files from creator to server. It is also commonly used to download programs and other files to your computer from other servers.
Item
A single entry in a news feed or podcast channel. Each item contains an enclosure that links to the audio file for the podcast, including ID3 tags.
Internet
A worldwide system of computer networks conceived by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. government in 1969 and first known as the ARPANET. The original aim was to create a network allowing users of a research computer at one university to be able to “talk to” research computers at other universities. A side benefit of ARPANET’s design was enabling messages to be routed or rerouted in more than one direction so that the network could continue to function even if parts of it were destroyed in a military attack or other disaster.
Narrowcast
Audio or video programs targeting a specific audience demographic, as opposed to a broadcast. Many podcasts may be described as narrowcasts, although as the technology continues to be adopted, “mainstream” programming for wider audiences is being podcast as well.
News feed
A Web feed that specifically supplies new headlines or posts to an RSS aggregator. See RSS feed.
A news feed may also be called a news channel.
Permission marketing
A marketing strategy using e-mail and other mobile technology to send consumers information that they have agreed in advance to receive. Opt-in e-mail, where Internet users agree in advance to receive information about certain product categories, is an example. Permission is a key provision of the 2003 Can Spam Act, http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/buspubs/canspam/shtm.
Phishing
An e-mail fraud method. A perpetrator sends a legitimate-looking e-mail in an attempt to gather personal and/or financial information from recipients. Typically, the messages appear to come from well- known and trustworthy (but “spoofed”) websites.
Ping
A basic Internet program that lets you verify that a particular IP address exists and can accept requests.
The verb ping means the act of using the ping utility or command. Ping is used diagnostically to ensure that a host computer is actually operating
Podcast
An audio file published on the Internet with an RSS feed, allowing users to subscribe to automatic downloads of a series of such programs. Podcasts are a collection of files, audio MP3 files, for example, that are then included in an RSS 2.0 news feed as enclosures. Instead of headlines in a news feed, each item in a podcast RSS feed represents a single MP3 file.
Podcasting
The preparation and distribution of audio (and possibly other media) files for download to digital music or multimedia players such as the iPod.
Podcatcher
A software application that automatically checks for and downloads new podcast feeds.
Proxy server
An enterprise that uses the Internet to act as an intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that the enterprise can ensure security, administrative control and caching service. A
proxy server is associated with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion.
Punchcast
A podcast that is sent directly to a smartphone or other mobile device without being sent to a laptop or desktop PC.
Push technology
A set of technologies whereby information is delivered from a central server to a client computer, often by means of an Internet-based content delivery network .
Redirection
On a website, a technique for moving visitors to a different page or site when its address has been changed and visitors are familiar with the old address.
RSSL
RDF Site Summary, formerly called Rich Site Summary or Really Simple Syndication; a method of describing news or other Web content that is available for “feeding” (distribution or syndication) from an online publisher to Web users.
RSS aggregator
A program used to collect and read RSS feeds. An RSS aggregator also may be known as a newsreader, news aggregator or RSS aggregator. Some readers exist as stand-alone programs and others operate as extensions of Web browsers or e-mail programs; still others are available online so feeds can
be read independently of the computer used to collect them.
RSS feed
An XML file that provides content or summaries of content, including links to the full versions of the content and other metadata, that a user can subscribe to using an RSS aggregator. Some sites may call this an RSS feed a channel.
Scraping
The process of someone creating an RSS feed from another website, as opposed to the individual’s own content.
Spam
Unsolicited e-mail. From the sender’s point-of-view, spam is a form of bulk mail, often sent to a list obtained from a spambot or to a list obtained by companies that specialize in creating e-mail distribution lists. To the receiver, it usually seems like junk e-mail.
Spool
To copy an RSS link into a podcast organizer or loader application to download later.
Spyware
Any technology that aids in gathering information about a person or organization without their knowledge. On the Internet (where it is sometimes called a spybot or tracking software), spyware is programming that is put in someone’s computer to secretly gather information about the user and relay it to advertisers or other interested parties. Spyware can get in a computer as a software virus or as the
result of installing a new program.
Streaming media
Sound (audio) and pictures (video) transmitted on the Internet in a streaming or continuous fashion, using data packets. The most effective reception of streaming media requires some form of broadband technology such as cable modem or DSL.
Syndication
The supply of material for reuse and integration with other material, often through a paid service subscription. The most common example of syndication is newspapers where content such as wire-service news, comics, columns, horoscopes and crossword puzzles usually are syndicated content. Newspapers receive the content from the content providers, reformat it as required, integrate it with other copy, print it and publish it. For many years mainly a feature of print media, today content syndication is the way a great deal of information is disseminated across the Web.
Timeshifting
The process of recording and storing data for later viewing, listening or reading. In communications, the term timeshifting refers to the transmission of messages or data to be read, heard or viewed by the recipient at a later time. E-mail, voice mail and fax are common examples. Podcasting is a perfect example of timeshifting for radio programming.
URL
Uniform Resource Locator, previously Universal Resource Locator; the unique address for a file that is accessible on the Internet. A URL is a type of URI (Uniform Resource Identifier, formerly called Universal Resource Identifier.)
USM
Universal Subscription Mechanism, which allows certain podcasters to add a subscription automatically from an RSS file.
Uploading
The transmission of a file from one computer system to another, usually a larger computer system. From a network user’s point-of-view, to upload a file is to send it to another computer that is set up to receive it.
Video podcasting
Similar to podcasting, except that video files instead of MP3s are published into RSS
feeds; also called “vlogging” or “vodcasting.”
Vlog
Video blog; a blog that contains video content. The small, but growing, segment of the blogosphere devoted to vlogs is sometimes referred to as the vlogosphere.
Web 2.0
A term for advanced Internet technology and applications, including blogs, wikis, RSS and bookmark sharing. The two major components of Web 2.0 are the technological advances enabled by Ajax and other new applications such as RSS and Eclipse and the user empowerment that they support.
Web accessibility
Standards ensuring that people with disabilities can use the Web. Web accessibility means that people with disabilities can perceive, understand, navigate and interact with the Web, and that they can contribute to the Web. Web accessibility also benefits others, including older people with changing abilities due to aging. Web accessibility encompasses all disabilities that affect access to the
Web, including visual, auditory, physical, speech, cognitive and neurological disabilities.
Weblog
A website that consists of a series of entries arranged in reverse chronological order, often frequently updated with new information about particular topics. The information can be written by the site owner, gleaned from other websites or other sources or contributed by users.
Webinar
A type of Web conference or Web seminar that can be presented as an interactive dialogue between presenter and audience completely via the Internet, or a telephone-based presentation with complementing computer-based content. A webinar is “live” in the sense that information is conveyed according to an agenda, with a starting and ending time (Some are now available for viewing after as “pre-recorded,” so to speak?)
Wiki
A server program that allows collaboration in forming the content of a website or other document via a website. With a wiki, any user can edit the site content, including other users’ contributions, using a regular Web browser. Basically, a wiki website operates on a principle of collaborative trust. The term comes from the word “wikiwiki,” which means “fast” in the Hawaiian language.
World Wide Web
All the resources and users on the Internet that are using the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). The World Wide Web is the universe of network-accessible information, an embodiment of human knowledge.
XML
Extensible Markup Language; a flexible way to create common information formats and share both the format and the data on the World Wide Web, intranets and elsewhere.
Publicity Bureau
Nation’s first publicity firm, forerunner to today’s PR firm, used tools of fact-finding, publicity and personal contact to saturate media with railroad propaganda.
Samuel Adams
Organization—Sons of Liberty, Committees of Correspondence; Symbols—Liberty Tree; Slogans—Taxation without Representation; Staged events—Boston Tea Party.
Edward L. Bernays
Wrote Crystallizing Public Opinion, the first book on public relations (published in 1923), and coined the term public relations counsel with his wife Doris Fleischman. Taught the first course in public relations at New York University, and was the first to call himself a public relations professional. He said good public relations counsel recognizes changes in an organization’s social setting and advises clients or employers how the organization should change to establish a “common meeting ground.” Among the first to advocate licensure. Often referred to as the “father of public relations.” (1920s)
George Creel
Chairman of the Committee on Public Information during World War I, and understood the power of publicity to mobilize the public. He started the “Four Minutemen” and created
“spokespersons” from key interest groups such as lawyers, actors, journalists, teachers. Used persuasive
tactics to dehumanize the enemy.
Elmer Davis
Director of the Office of War Information during World War II. Pioneered widespread use of radio, Hollywood and media to publicize the war effort.
Rex Harlow
Founded the American Counsel that ultimately became PRSA through mergers with other public relations organizations. (1947)
Louis McHenry Howe
Long-time public relations advisor to Franklin D. Roosevelt. Recognized that mutually beneficial public relationships could be built only by coupling responsible performance with persuasive publicity. (1936)
Amos Kendall
Key member of President Jackson’s Kitchen Cabinet, he excelled at creating events to mold opinion. Pollster, counselor, ghostwriter and publicist. (1820s-30s)
Ivy Lee
: Created a document termed by journalists as the “Declaration of Principles.” Among the principles:
to supply news and ensure the company’s work is done in the open, provide accurate information and
not advertising, and work with media to respond promptly to requests for additional information. Among the first to recognize that publicity needs to be supported by good works. Performance determines the publicity a client gets. Used testimonials, and advised clients to make full disclosure, tell the truth, and convince management to do the same. (1900s)
Arthur Page
An AT&T vice president who helped set the standard for corporate PR. Said a company’s performance would be determined by its public reputation. (1927)
Theodore Roosevelt
First president to exploit news media as a new and powerful tool of presidential leadership.
Theodore N. Vail
Laid the public acceptance and public policy foundations for the nation’s telephone system. Pioneered corporate public relations with AT&T. Understood the necessity for improving relationships between corporations and public. (1883)
George Westinghouse
Created the first corporate public relations department. (1889)
Consensus Building Steps
As a public relations professional, you may often find yourself in the role of a consensus-building facilitator
to help disputing parties come to a mutually acceptable solution. This might be particularly true if you work in government, environmental, or public affairs specialties. As a facilitator, you will typically take a series of steps to build consensus, including many of the following.

Identifying and recruiting appropriate representatives to participate in the consensus building sessions.

Guiding participants to set the agenda and process.

Identifying and analyzing the problem with the participants.

Evaluating possible solutions.

Directing the group through the decision-making process.

Obtaining finalization and unanimous approval of solution.
Consulting Skills
Creativity to offer new solutions, new messages and new options

Good communication skills: written, verbal, electronic, new technology

In-depth knowledge of the issues to be addressed

Respect for the individual/group requesting consultation

An understanding of the importance of confidentiality

Cultural competence and proficiency

Vision to look beyond the obvious to suggest new possibilities

A team or partnership approach to work with the individual or group

Leadership in setting an example for others to follow

Flexibility in facilitating change or adapting to changing needs
Negotiation Skills
Negotiation, as defined by Cohen (1980) in You Can Negotiate Anything, is the “use of information and power to affect behavior.” Cohen further defines three critical elements that are always present in negotiation.

1. Information: You may perceive that the other side knows more about you and your needs than you know about them and their needs.

2. Time: You may perceive that the other side is not under the same kind of time constraints or deadlines as you experience.
3. Power: You may perceive that the other side has more power and authority than you think you have.
prospectus
In finance, a prospectus is a disclosure document that describes a financial security for potential buyers. A prospectus commonly provides investors with material information about mutual funds, stocks, bonds and other investments, such as a description of the company's business, financial statements, biographies of officers and directors, detailed information about their compensation, any litigation that is taking place, a list of material properties and any other material information. In the context of an individual securities offering, such as an initial public offering, a prospectus is distributed by underwriters or brokerages to potential investors.
Courtesy bias
In interview situations it is quite possible that one will come across the problem of courtesy bias, i.e. the tendency for respondents to give answers that they think the interviewer wants to hear, rather than what they really feel. The respondents may not wish to be impolite or to offend the interviewer, and may therefore endeavour to give 'polite' answers. Courtesy bias can be an obstacle to obtaining useful and reliable data and therefore needs to be minimised. Generally, however, the creation of a good interview environment and an appropriate relationship between the interviewer and the respondent can help avoid too much courtesy bias arising.
Line management
Line management is a business term to describe the administration of activities that contribute directly to the output of products or services. In a corporate hierarchy, a "line manager" holds authority in a vertical 'line' (chain of command), and/or over a particular product line. He or she is charged with meeting corporate objectives in a specific functional area or line of business.