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64 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Describe Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment |
Aim was to investigate group dynamics Randomly assigned participants into two groups, prisoners and guards Placed in a basement at Stanford Uni for two weeks Given uniforms, and rules by experimenter |
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What happened in Zimbardo's Prison Experiment |
Some Guards began abusive behaviours One Prisoner became emotionally disturbed There was a planned break out Experiment was to last for two weeks, but was stopped after five days Shows the influence of roles |
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Describe Milgram's Obedience experiments |
- Initially setup to try to understand why Germans behaved the way they did in WW2 - Participants were asked to shock people who made mistakes. - Authority figure would tell them they had to shock - Different scales of danger in shock. How far would people go?
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What results did Milgram find in his Obedience experiments? |
- Unexpectedly most participants obeyed, giving shocks right through to the "XXXX" level. |
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What moderated Milgram's results in his Obedience experiments? |
- A reduction in legitmacy/authority of the experimenter and environment reduced obedience - i.e. Yale vs. Run down office - i.e. Lab coat vs. no Lab coat - i.e. authority figure present vs. via telephone |
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Describe Ashe's conformity experiments |
- Group of individuals, one participant, rest confederates - Presented with a line, asked to choose which line matched out of three options. Easy task. - Initially confederates chose correctly - They then proceeded to intentionally give incorrect answers |
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Describe the results of Ashe's conformity experiments |
- 30-50% of participants conformed - Motivated by self doubt, self conscious, fear of disapproval, anxiety, loneliness. - Knew line was different, but didn't want to stand out. - Conformity increased from 1 to 5 people in the group, but stabilised after 5. |
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Describe Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance |
- People prefer to have consistent cognitions - To hold opposed concepts in mind causes psychological distress. Cognitive Dissonance. - We employ strategies to reduce this cognitive dissonance. |
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What are some of the strategies employed to reduce cognitive dissonance? |
- Changing attitudes - Changing your perception of the behaviour - Add Consonant cognitions - Minimise the importance of the conflict - Reduce perceived choice
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Describe Festinger and Carlsmith's 1959 experiment on cognitive dissonance |
- Ask people to perform a boring task - Then ask people to lie to another that the task is actually interesting - Offered large amount of money for the lie, or an immaterial amount. - The immaterial group, exhibited dissonance, and subsequent attitude change. - Believed the task was fun |
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What is confirmation bias? |
We search for information that supports/confirms our preconceptions, not for information that challenges it. |
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What are the implications of confirmation bias? |
Impacts how we remember, interpret and search for information |
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Describe the study by Greenberg, Williams & O'Brien (1986) on confirmation bias |
- Investigated juror decision making - All read the same case - Verdicts were read out in two different ways. Harsh to lenient or lenient to Harsh |
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What were the results of Greenberg, Williams & O'Brien's (1986) study on confirmation bias |
- If the verdicts were read out lenient to harsh: 87.5% not guilty - If the verdicts were read out harsh to lenient: 25% not guilty |
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What is fundamental attribution error? |
- We overvalue dispositional/personality based explanation for the observed behaviours of others; and - We undervalue situational explanations for the observed behaviour of others |
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What are the possible causes of fundamental attribution error? |
- Just World hypothesis - Lazy processing - Situational explanations are unknown, all we see is the behaviour. |
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What is Beneffectance? |
The self is perceived as being responsible for desired outcomes, but not responsible for undesired outcomes. |
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What are the implications of Beneffectance in group situations? |
If the group succeeds we perceive ourselves as being responsible, if the group fails we perceieve ourselves for being less responsible |
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What is vicarious beneffectance? |
When a group is successful we identify more with that group, than if the group is unsuccessful |
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What is Tversky and Kahneman's (1973) availability heuristic? |
We make decisions based on how easy things come to mind rather than how common something is. |
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What are the consequences of the availability heuristic? |
We overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs, opinions and attributes. |
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Describe Schwarz et al. (1991) study into the causes the availability heuristic? |
- Participants were asked to list six or twelve examples of whether they were assertive or unassertive. - Six, Assertive; Twelve Assertive - Six, Unassertive; Twelve Unassertive - Asked to rate how assertive they were |
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What were the results of Schwarz et al. (1991) study into the causes of the availability heuristic? |
- Participants rated themselves as more assertive in the Six; Assertive condition - Participants rated themselves as more assertive in the Twelve; Unassertive condition |
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Describe Petty and Cacioppo's Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion |
- Two routes of persuasions: - Central route (deliberate processing) - Peripheral route (snap judgments) - Which route is taken depends on ability and motivation - Need for Cognition is a moderator |
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What is Need for Cognition? |
- People differ in terms of how much they enjoy effortful cognitive activities. |
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What is Cialdini's techniques of Persuasion? |
- Six techniques to improve someone's ability to persuade others. - Based on field research working undercover in sales related roles, and observing behaviours melded with social psych theories |
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What are the six techniques of Cialdini's master persuasion? |
- Reciprocity - Commitment and consistency - Social Proof - Liking - Authority - Scarcity |
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What is involved in Cialdini's Reciprocity method of Persuasion? |
- Not so free samples: Free samples of low value (25 cents) tend to get a higher return ($2.00). i.e. free sample in a shop, more likely to buy - Reciprocal concessions: Start with a large request to which everyone would say no, followed by a smaller request which now sounds reasonable (Small request is what you wanted) |
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What is involved in Cialdini's Commitment and consistency method of Persuasion? |
- We like to convince others that we behave consistently - Low Balling/Foot in the Door: get buy in for a small commitment, more likely to then get large commitment
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What is involved in Cialdini's Social Proof method of Persuasion? |
- Conformity / Doing what others do - Convince others your product is socially desirable - i.e. 85% of other people did the same thing - i.e. Call now we're ready and waiting vs. ' call now, but we're busy so we might not be able to take your call" |
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What is involved in Cialdini's Liking method of Persuasion? |
- We like and comply with people who say they like us, those who are similar to us and those who are attractive - Tied into need to be part of the group - We comply more with those who mimic our body language |
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Explain the mechanisms behind mimicry |
- We automatically mimic the mannerisms, postures and gestures of those around us - We like and are more persuaded by those who mimic us, as long as we don't notice the mimicry - We don't like those who anti-mimic us |
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Explain the results of Tanner et al. (2007) in demonstrating the mechanisms of mimicry |
- IVs (Salesperson / uninvested third party; Mimic/No Mimic) - DVs (product related questions) - More likely to likely to be positive towards a product when mimicry present. Effect inhanced for salesperson vs. uninvested third party |
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How did Neal and Chartrand (2012) demonstrate Botox's negative effect on Mimicry? |
- Botox restricts our ability to mimic, by preventing facial muscles from moving - Two groups of women (Botox / No paralysis face treatment) - emotion perception task - Botox Women significantly less accurate at decoding positive and negative facial expressions - Amplified expressions = better decoding |
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What is involved in Cialdini's Authority method of Persuasion? |
- Tied into Milgram obedience studies - Expert opinions, high status, clothes etc make a difference to how we are persuaded by a message - Clothes can even alter our own behaviour |
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Explain Galinsky's study on clothes and the impact they can have on people's performance |
- Two groups, both wearing white coats. One group told coat is a doctors coat, other group a painters coat - Give cognitive and attention tasks - Doctors coat group did better on all tasks |
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What is involved in Cialdini's Scarcity method of Persuasion? |
- tied into the commodity theory, what's scare is more valuable - Scarceness also implies social proof - i.e. limit per customer, only a few left etc etc |
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What did Berger and Fitzsimons (2008) report in respects to persuasion outside of our awareness? |
- exposure to environmental cues repeatedly prime perceptually/conceptual related product representations in memor - As a consequence the product representation is more easily accessible - i.e. the mars effect, NASA mars mission led to higher Mars bar sales |
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What did Galinsky and colleagues (2014) find in respects to the power of music in influencing word completion tasks? |
- Two conditions (Power inducing song or not power song) - Asked to fill in the blanks P _ _ ER - Power inducing songs more likely to complete word as power |
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What did Galinsky and colleagues (2014) find in respects to the power of music in influencing illusory control? |
- Two conditions (Power song, no power song) - Task was to say a number, and roll a dice, if the numbers match, you won $5 - Choose if you or expirementer rolled die - power condition chose to roll die 86% of the time, whilst no power chose to roll die 59% |
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What did Galinsky and colleagues (2014) find in respects to the power of music in influencing first moves? |
- Two conditions (Power song, no power song) - Participants put in online debate team, asked if they wanted to go first or second - 34% power group said go first, compared to 20% of non power condition |
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What is an attitude? |
A positive, negative or mixed reaction to a person, object or idea. |
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What are the three componets to an attitude? |
Affect (feeling), Behaviour (intentions), and cognition (beliefs) |
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What are the different typos of attitudes? |
Strong, Weak or non-attitudes |
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How are strong attitudes different from weak attitudes? |
Strong attitudes are more accessible. i.e. they come to mind more easily |
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What makes an attitude strong |
- formed on the directed experience (by interacting with the attitude object directly) - vested interest - repeatedly expressed - expressed recently |
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Under what conditions will an attitude predict behaviour? |
When the attitude is accessible and relevant to he situation at hand |
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What factors can reduce an attitude's ability to predict behaviour? |
- Strong situational factors - Asking people to explain their attitude - Asking for general attitudes - Asking a high self-monitor |
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What did Wells and Petty (1980) report in respects to behaviour predicting attitudes? |
The required behaviour, predicted the resulting attitude |
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What did Greenwald and Banaji (1995) discover in respects to implicit social cognition? |
- Past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor - thus these implicit attitudes are not available for self-report |
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How quickly are implicit attitudes activated compared to explicit attitudes? |
Tend to be activated more rapidly, and can be meditated by conscious effort |
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What did Schwarz & Clore (1983) discover in respects of Halo effects on attitudes |
- Experimenters called participants, and asked to rate their general quality of life - Two groups called on either Sunny day / Rainy day - Weather was either asked about or not - When weather asked, same rating. When weather not asked, sunny day rated higher quality of life |
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What are micro expressions? (Ekman) |
- When people deliberately try to conceal their emotions, a very brief facial expression often occurs |
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What is a Facial Action Coding System? |
Most widely used method for measuring and describing facial behaviours. |
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What did Ekman & O'Sullivan (1991) report in respects of our ability to tell if people are lying |
- In many studies only US secret service agents (64.12) perform significantly above chance are detecting lying. - Others are all about chance |
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What two evaluations account for about 80% of our overall evaluations of people? |
Warmth, which is evaluated first. Followed by competence. |
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How does competence in one area generally effect broader feeling of competence? |
- One positive competent demonstration, people will assume broadly competent - One negative competent demonstration, people tend not to generalise to overall incompetency |
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How does warmth in one area generally effect broader feeling of warmth? |
- One positive warmth demonstration, people will tend not to generalise - One negative warmth demonstration, people tend not to generalise to being less warm overall |
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Describe Amy Cuddy's Power Posing research? |
Do high power poses actually produce power? |
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What are the findings of Amy Cuddy's Power Posing research? |
- High power, non verbal displays caused neuroendocrine and behavioural changes for participants - increased testosterone, feelings of power, tolerance for risk. Decrease in cotisol - Suggests that a person can by adopting certain poses, embody power and instantly become more powerful |
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Describe Elizabeth Loftus's research on how our memory is suspectible to influence |
- Participants watched a film of a traffic accident - Participants were then asked how fast the car was going when it <variable> another car - variable was either smashed/hit/contacted - Smashed = faster estimate from participants - Slight changes in wording can have a big impact on response |
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Describe Sheena Lyengar's research on choice paralysis |
- Choice overwhelms us - Once we get to about 6 choices, it all gets too much - Greater satisifaction with selection, which original options limited |
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What was the results of Sheena Lyengar's Jam study on choice paralysis |
- Jam stand, either 24 or 6 types of Jam - People given coupons to spend - More people went to the 24 Jams stand, but more people used their coupon at the 6 Jam stand - We think we like more choice, but reality is otherwise |
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Describe Michael Norton's research on money buying us happiness |
- Participants given different sums of money ($5 or $20) and told them to spend it that day. - Half were told to spend on themselves, others to spend on other people - Those who spent money on other people were happier - No difference between spending $5 and $20 - People predict the opposite effects |
