Apes Review Cards

Front 1

Ecological services of forestry

Back 1

1) habitat for species

2) act as carbon sinks

3) reduce soil erosion as they serve as a watershed (absorbing and releasing controlled amounts of water)

4) affecting local climate patterns

5) providing energy and nutrient cycling

6) purifying air and water

Front 2

Tree plantations

Back 2

large, managed commercial/government-owned farms with uniformly aged trees of one species (monoculture)

Trees may be genetically modified hybrids

Have short rotation cycles so they are economically efficient

5% of the world's forest are these, but 20% of current world wood production

These forests yield much more wood per acre than old wood forests; but also have less biodiversity

These have no decaying wood (which is important for maintaining an ecosystem)

Front 3

Old Growth Forests

Back 3

Forests that have not been seriously impacted by human activities for hundred of years

Rich in biodiversity; have indicator species; fungal ecosystem; "pit and mound" topography due to trees falling and creating microenvironments by recyling carbon matter directly to the soil

Decaying wood and ground layer that provides a rich carbon sink

Depletion of these increases the risk of climatic change

Contain trees w/ high economic value, but that take a long time to grow (mahogany, wood, etc)

Front 4

Forest Fires

Back 4

These are allowed to burn by law!

Forest fires are increasing in the USA (4% more; total area burned by them is 7x greater than previously)

Strongly correlated to temperatures -> warmer summers means more fires

A correlation exists between early arrivals of the spring snowmelt in the mountainous regions and the incidence of large forest fires. (earlier snowmelt -> longer dry season -> more opp. for fires)

Front 5

Crown Fires

Back 5

occur in forests that have not had surface fires for a long time

Extremely hot

Burn entire trees and leap from treetop to treetop

Kills wildlife, increases soil erosion, destroys structures

Front 6

Ground Fires

Back 6

Occur underground, burn partially decayed leaves

Hard to detect/extinguish

Common in peat bogs

Front 7

Surface Fires

Back 7

Burns undergrowth/leaf litter/young trees

Spares older trees/many wild animals

Releases minerals back into the soil profile

Stimulates germination for some species w/ serotinous cones

Helps keep pathogens and insects in check

Allows vegetation to grow in newly developed clearings (this feeds animals)

Front 8

Methods to control fires

Back 8

Two methods:

1) Prevention- burning permits, closing forests when chance of a fire is high (drought), educating the public

2) Prescribed burning- purposely setting controlled surface fires to thin out underbrush in high-risk areas; must be cafedul

Front 9

Healthy Forest Initiative (2003)

Back 9

Allows timber copanies to cut down economically valuble trees in most national forests for 10 years

Timber companies must in turn clear out small, fire-prone trees and underbrush

May have consequences of increasing fires by accumulation of slash and increasing the number of fire prone young trees

Front 10

Deforestation (definition)

Back 10

The conversion of forested areas to nonforested areas

They are then used as: grasslands for grazing, commercial logging, tree plantations, urban sprawl

Front 11

Natural Deforestation

Back 11

Caused by tsunamis, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, glaciation, and desertification

Front 12

Deforestation (results)

Back 12

1) extinction of species w/ specialized niches

2) reduces the available habitats for migratory species

3) decreases soil fertility brought about by erosion

4) allows runoff into aquatic systems

5) increases CO2 in atmosphere and changes local climate pattern

Front 13

Even-Age management

Back 13

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

essentially the practice of tree plantations

Front 14

Uneven-Age management

Back 14

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

Maintain a stand with trees of all ages from seedling to mature

Front 15

Selective Cutting

Back 15

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

Specific trees in an area are chosen and cut

Front 16

High Grading

Back 16

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

Cutting and removing only the largest and best trees

Front 17

Shelterwood cutting

Back 17

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

Removes all mature trees in an area within a limited time

Front 18

Seed Tree Cutting

Back 18

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

Majority of trees are removed except for scattered, seed-producing trees used to regenerate new strands

Front 19

Clear-Cutting

Back 19

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

All of the trees in an area are cut at the same time

This technique is used to cultivate shade intollerant tree species

Front 20

Strip-Cutting

Back 20

(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)

Clear-cutting a strip of trees that follows the land contour

The corridor is allowed to regenerate

Front 21

Deforestation (effect on Hydrologic cycle)

Back 21

Alters the cycle: potentially increasing or decreasing the amount of water in the soil and groundwater

This affects the recharge of aquifers and the moisture in the atmosphere

Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain, and transport precipitation

These become sources of surface water runoff -> faster transport of surface water leads to flash flooding and more extreme floods than would occur w/ the forest cover

Decreased evapotranspiration

Front 22

Tree plantations (Pros)

Back 22

1) Practical method for trees that require full or moderate sunlight in order to grow

2) Genetically improved species of trees that resist disease and grow faster can be grown

3) Inceases economic return on investments

4) produces a high yield of timber at the lower cost, and provides jobs

Front 23

Tree plantations (Cons)

Back 23

1) reduces the economic value of the land

2) Causes habitat fragmentation

3) Reduces biodiversity

4) If done of steeply sloped areas, will over cause soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding

5) promotes monoculture and tree plantations that are prone to disease or infestation through lack of diversity

Front 24

Evapotranspiration (when decreased by deforestation)

Back 24

1) lessens atmospheric moisture and precipitation levels

2) affects precip levels downwing from deforestation site

Front 25

Impoverished School

Back 25

(school of though w/ regards to causes of deforestation)

major cause of deforestation is the growing number of poor

Front 26

Neoclassical School

Back 26

(school of though w/ regards to causes of deforestation)

believe that the major cause is "open access property rights"

Front 27

Political-Ecology School

Back 27

(school of though w/ regards to causes of deforestation)

believes that the major cause is due to entrepreneurs

Front 28

Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest

Back 28

- centered on how deforestation affects nutrient cycles. many conclusions made:

1) undisturbed mature forest ecosystem is in dynamic equilibrium w/ respect to chemical nutrients

2) inflow/outflow of nutrients = low compared with levels of nutrients being recycled within the ecosystem

3) when deforestation occured, water runoff increased; soil erosion increased -> large outflow of nutrients -> water pollution

4) nutrient loss could be reduced by clearing trees and vegatation in horizontal strips

Front 29

Rate of carbon dioxide being released into atmosphere as a result of deforestation

Back 29

1.6 billion metric tons per year

Front 30

Amount of land forests cover worldwide

Back 30

1/3 of all land surface

Front 31

Where are most forests located?

Back 31

70% North America, Russia, and South America

80% are closed canopy, 20% are open canopy

Front 32

Amount of land forests cover in US

Back 32

1/3 of land

1/3 of that is federal; 2/3 is nonfederal

Front 33

The Forest Service

Back 33

155 national forests, 22 grasslands

Established as an agency of the US Dept. of Agriculture

Manages public lands in national forests/grasslands

Protects and manages natural resources on NAtional Forest System lands; sponsers forest research; provides international resources

Front 34

Percent of mammal/reptile species found in forests

Back 34

80%

Front 35

Forest Reserve Act (1891)

Back 35

Gave the president authority to establish forest reservations from public domain lands

Front 36

Multiple Use and Sustained Yield Act (1960,1968)

Back 36

Directs the US Secretary of Agriculture to manage national forests for recreation, wildlife havitat, and timber production through principles of multiple use and sustainable yield

Front 37

Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA, 1976)

Back 37

Along w/ the Taylor Grazing Act, outlines policy concerning the use and preservation of public lands in the US. Grants federal govt jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands. Grants Bureau of Land Mgmt. responsibility to manage all public lands -- multiple use policy

Front 38

Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (FRRRPA)

Back 38

aka National Forest Management Act
Requires Sec. of Agriculture to develop a management program for national forest lands based on multiple-use and sustained yield principles.

Front 39

National Forests Management Act (1976)

Back 39

Authorized the creation and use of a special fun in situations involving the salvage of insect-infested, dead, damaged, or downed timber and to remove associated trees for stand improvement

Front 40

Rangelands

Back 40

are being compromised by overgrazing and desertification

The govt is trying to sustain these

Rangelands provide valuable grazing lands for livestock and wildlife

Source of high-quality water, clean air, and open spaces

These are the foundation for low-input, fully renewable food production systems for the cattle industry

Front 41

Overgrazing

Back 41

theme of the essay "tragedy of the commons"

occurs when plants are exposed to grazing for too long without sufficient recovery periods

Plants considered overgrazed when it is regrazed before the roots recover

Overgrazing can reduce root growth by up to 90%

Front 42

Overgrazing (Consequences)

Back 42

1) Pastures = less productive

2) Soils = less organic matter -> become less fertile

3) soil porosity decreases

4) Infiltration rate and moisture holding capacity of soil drops

5) soil is more susceptible to soil compaction

6) good plants = stressed, weedier plants survive better in harsher conditions

7) Biodiversity decreases - reduces native vegetation, leads to erosion

8) eutrophication increases due to cattle waste runoff

9) predator-prey relationships thrown off balance

10) sustainability of the land is threatened

Front 43

Desertification

Back 43

Conversion of marginal rangeland/cropland to a more desert like land type

Front 44

Causes of Desertification

Back 44

1) overgrazing

2) soil erosion

3) prolonged drought

4) climate changes

5) overuse of resources (nutrients + water)

Front 45

Steps to Desertification

Back 45

1) overgrazing

2) trampled soil washed away (ground doesn't hold water anymore)

3) remaining vegetation dies/taken

4) soil becomes unsuitable so have anything grow in it

5) topsoil is blow away by wind

Front 46

% of land that Rangelands cover in the USA

Back 46

40% -> dominant type of land in arid and semiarid regions

80% of lands in western US are rangelands

Front 47

Methods of Rangeland Management

Back 47

1) Controlling the number and distribution of livestock so that the carrying capacity is not exceeded

2) Restoring degraded rangeland

3) Moving livestock from one area to another to allow the rangeland to recover

4) fencing off riparian (stream) areas to reduce damage to these sensitive areas

5) suppresing growth of invasive species

6) Replanting barren rangeland with native grass seed to reduce soil erosion

7) Providing supplemental feed at selected sites

8) Locating water holes, water tanks and salt blocks at strategic points that don't degreade the environment

Front 48

Livestock grazing facts

Back 48

this is the fifth-rated threat to endangered plant species

the fourth rated threat for all endangered wildlife

#1 leading threat to all endangered species in arid regions of the US

Front 49

Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA, 1974)

Back 49

Mandates periodic assessments of forests and rangelands in the US

directs that the assessment be conducted by the US Forest Service and consider a broad range of renewable resources

Front 50

Public Rangelands Improvement Act

Back 50

Established and reaffirmed a commitment to manage, maintain, and improve rangelands so that they become as productive as possible

Front 51

Taylor Grazing Act (1934)

Back 51

Requires grazing permits on federal land

Front 52

Buildings in USA (energy use)

Back 52

1/3 of all energy

2/3 of all energy in the USA

Front 53

Green building approaches

Back 53

- energy conservation
- indoor air quality
- resource-efficient building techniques and materials
- water conservation through the use of xeriscaping
- designs that minimize waste while utilizing recycles materials
- placing buildings whenever possible near public transportation hubs that use mutitude of venues (light rail, subways, and park rides
- creating pedetrian friendly environments
- Preserving historical/cultural aspects of the community

Front 54

Urbanization

Back 54

refers to the movement of people from rural areas to cities and the environmental changes that accompany it

Front 55

Areas with largest growth in urbanization

Back 55

Asia and Africa

Africa has a larger urban population than North America

Nations with the most rapid increases in urbanization are those w/ the most rapid economic growth

Front 56

USA urban population percentage

Back 56

75% of all Americans are part of the urban population

Front 57

Urbanization (Pros)

Back 57

1) Uses less land -> less impact on the environment

2) better educational delivery system

3) mass transit systems decrease reliance on fossil fuels - commuting distances = shorter

4) better sanitation systems

5) large numbers of people = high tax revenue

6) urban areas attract industry due to availability of raw materials, distribution networks, customers, and labor pool

7) pollution comes from point sources - enabling focused remediation techniques

Front 58

Urbanization (Cons)

Back 58

1) Impact on land is more concentrated/pronounced (water runoff, flooding)

2) Sanitation systems have greater volumes of wastes to deal with

3) Commuting times are longer

4) Solid-waste buildup is greater -> landfill space becomes scarce and costly

5) Wealthy move away, this strains tax base

6) Population increase may be higher than job growth

7) Pollution high due to high population levels

Front 59

Transportation Infrastructure

Back 59

Transportation can be via roadways or water channels

Areas without transportation infrastructure suffers an ecosystem impact

Front 60

Federal Highway System

Back 60

contains about 160,000 miles of roadway important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility

Though they receive substantial federal funding, the roads are apart of the STATE that they are in

System serves all major US cities. Distribution of all goods and services involve a highway at some point

Front 61

Federal Aid Highway Act (1956)

Back 61

Authorized contruction of the Interstate Highway system. Under the new law, the fed govt agreed to fund 90% of the construction costs for the interstates. States provide other funds, administer construciton projects, and own/operate the completed interstate highways

Front 62

Channel

Back 62

(aka strait) - a relatively narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water

can be natural or artifical

repeated dredging is often necessary because of silting

Maintained by the US Dept of Interior and monitered by the Coast Gaurd

Front 63

Canals

Back 63

Two Largest in world:
- Panama canal (pacific ocean to atlantic)

- Suez canal (Red Sea w/ mediterranean); 8% of world's shipping goes through here

Front 64

Roadless Areas

Back 64

Places where no roads have been built and where no logging or other developemnt can occur

Havens for fish and wildlife whose habitats have been fragmented/destroyed

Provide habitats to 1600 threatened/endangered species and include watersheds that have clean drinking water.

This rule protects 2% of total land base in the USA

Front 65

Roadless Area Conservation Rule (2001)

Back 65

this rule places 1/3 of the national forest system's total acreage off-limits to road building and logging

Protects unspoiled land in 39 states - creates jobs and preserves fun activities in these lands

Front 66

Bureau of Land Management

Back 66

manages 262 million acres of land (1/8 of the total land in the USA)

Also responsible for wildfire management

Most of their lands are in Western america and in Alaska - lands are dominated by extensive grasslands, forest, high mountains, arctic tundra, and deserts.

Manages all aspects of these site - activities, paleontological, historical

Front 67

Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976)

Back 67

Outlined policy concerning the use and preservation of public lands

Granted federal jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands

Front 68

National Parks

Back 68

1,100 national parks in the world today - not all of them receieve proper protection

Largest national park land in the USA is in Alaska

US national parks threatened by high demand by large numbers of visitors -> leads to congestion -> eroded trails, disrupting noise, and pollution

Front 69

Yellowstone National Park Act (1872)

Back 69

Preserves the watershed of the Yellowstone Rive "for benefit of all people"

For the first time, public lands were preserved for public enjoyment and were to be administered by the federal government

Front 70

National Park Service Act (1916)

Back 70

Established that national parks are to be maintained in a manner that leaves them unimpaired for future generations and established the National Park Service to manage the parks

Front 71

Outdoor Recreation Act (1963)

Back 71

Laid out the Interior Department's role as coordinator of all federal agencies for programs affecting the conservation and development of rereation resources

Front 72

Wilderness Act (1964)

Back 72

Wilderness was defined by its lack of noticeable human modification or presence.

Federal officials are required to majage wilderness areas in a maner conducive to their retention of their wilderness character

Front 73

Land and Water Conservation Fund Act (1965)

Back 73

Established a fun, administered by the National Park Service to assist the states and federal agencies in meeting present and future outdoor recreation demands and needs of the American people

Front 74

National Trails System Act

Back 74

Established a national system of recreational, scienic, and historic trails

Front 75

Wildlife Refuges

Back 75

1st was Pelican Island, off Florida - used to protect breeding birds (Roosevelt)

Refuges initally created to protect endangered/at risk wildlife

Now there are 547 = Managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service

Front 76

Wetlands

Back 76

Areas that are covered by water and support plants that can grow in water-saturated soil

High plant productivity supports a rich diversity of animal life

Amount in US reduced from 10% to 5%

Wetland loss is due to conversion of land to agriculture as well as urbanization

Natural water purification system - removes sediments, nutrients, and toxins from flowing water

Front 77

Amount of endangered species in US that spend their part of their life in wetlands

Back 77

1/3

Front 78

Wetlands along lakes and ocean

Back 78

Stabilize shorelines and reduce damage caused by storm surges
Reduce the risks of flooding and reduce saltwater intrusion

Front 79

Fens

Back 79

wetlands characterized by continuous sources of groundwater rcih in magnesium and calcium -> makes fen alkaline

Front 80

Fen Groundwater

Back 80

comes from glaciers that have melted, depositing their water in layers of gravel and sand

Water sits upon layers of soil that are nonpermeable -> water is then forced to flow sideways along surface when it picks up minerals along its path

Front 81

Bog

Back 81

Type of wetland that accumulates acidic peat

these are located in cold, temperate climates

usually in boreal forests like russia

usually low in nutrients and are highly acidic -> carnivorous plants use insects as nutrient source since nutrient quality here is low

Front 82

Peat

Back 82

Deposit of dead plant material that can be dried and burned for fuel!

Front 83

Preservation/Sustainable

Back 83

To keep or maintain intact

Front 84

Remediation

Back 84

The act/process of correcting a fault or deficiency

Front 85

Mitigation

Back 85

to moderate or alleviate in force or intensity

Front 86

Restoration

Back 86

To restore to its former good condition

Front 87

Ecosystem Restoration

Back 87

Involves management actions designed to facilitate to trecovery or reestablishment of native ecosystems

A central premise of ecological restoration is: restoration of natural systems to conditions consistent w/ their evolutionary environments will prevent their further degradation while simultaneously conserving their native plants and animals

Front 88

Land Preservation options (part 1)

Back 88

1) careful monitering and enforcement

2) user-pay approach for extracting resources

3) eliminate govt subsidies to companies that extract publicly owned resources

4) Institute fair compensation for resources extracted from public resources (the products from the resources must be sold at full market value)

5) Uneven-Aged management forestry -> these practices foster maintaining a variety of tree species at various ages/sizes. Fosters biodiversity

Front 89

Land Preservation options (part 2)

Back 89

7) Reduce road building into uncut fores areas

8) rely on more sustainable tree-cutting methods: selective cutting and strip cutting

9) institute proper zoning

10) grow timber on longer rotations

Front 90

Mining

Back 90

Removing mineral resources from the groun

Can involve underground mines, drilling, room-and-pillar mining, and mountaintop removal

Front 91

Mining (Environmental effects and issues)

Back 91

1) mine wastes- acids and toxins
2) displacement of native species
3) reclamation of land and recycling

Front 92

Processing

Back 92

Removing ore from gangue

Involves transportation, processing, purification, and manufacturing

Front 93

Processing (Environmental Effects and Issues)

Back 93

All types of pollution:

1) Air
2) Water
3) Noise
4) Soil

Human health concerns

Front 94

Gangue

Back 94

the commercially worthless mineral matter associated with economically valuable metallic minerals in a deposit

processing removes good stuff from gangue

Front 95

Before extraction

Back 95

Economic decisions that gauge the profitability of an organization are made:

1) amount of ore at site
2) conventration
3) type of mining required
4) cost of transporting ore to a processing facility
5) cost of reclamation

Front 96

Site Development

Back 96

Samples are taken from an area to determine the quality and quantity of minerals in a location

Roads and equiptment are brought in

Front 97

Surface mining

Back 97

(Extraction Method)

Earth moving equipment is used.

this is a safe form of mining and a cost-effective one

topsoil and vegetation are removed; air quality issues develop; lots of waste materials involved; pits are dug below the water table so groundwater is pumped out (affects wetlands)

Front 98

Underground mining

Back 98

(Extraction Method)

Large shafts dug into Earth

Less surface destruction; less waste rock

VERY UNSAFE!

Acid mine drainage containing pyrites and other sulfides are produced -> affecting air and water quality

Front 99

In-Situ Leaching

Back 99

(Extraction Method)

Small holes are drilled into the site.

Water based chemical solvents are used to flush out desired minerals

Minimal waste rock; less expensive (rocks don't have to be broken/removed); less required remediation; less surface ground disturbance

Fluids injected into the Earth are toxic and enter the groundwater supply

Front 100

Smelting

Back 100

Methods by which a metal is obtained from ore, either as an element or as a simple compound

Front 101

Number of minerals extracted/used each year in the USA

Back 101

2 billion tons

USA importants more than 50% of its most needed minerals

USA, Germany, Russia = 8% of world pop, use 75% of metals (US uses 20%)

Front 102

What happens as mineral reserves become depleted?

Back 102

Lower grades of ore are mined which causes more processing and consequently more pollution

Front 103

Amount of Earth' crude oil reserves depleted

Back 103

45%-70%

We only have enough for about 50 more years

Front 104

Amount of oil US uses each year/uses stats

Back 104

30% of the oil extracted each year

2/3 of oil is used for transportation
1/4 used in industry

Front 105

Coal

Back 105

World's single largest source of fuel used to produce electricity

Global coal reserves are estimated to last about 300 years @ current levels of extraction

Front 106

World's largest producer of Coal

Back 106

CHINA!!!!!!

Front 107

Natural Gas

Back 107

Most of these reserves are in the Middle East

The US possesses 3% of these reserves - they can last 75 more years!

Front 108

General Mining Law

Back 108

Grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for minerals in public domain lands and allows them, upon making a discovery, to stake a claim on that deposit

Front 109

Surface mining Control and Reclamation Act

Back 109

Established a program for regulating surface coal mining and reclamation activities

Front 110

Bottom Trawling

Back 110

Uses a funnel-shaped net to drag the ocean bottom -> species not wanted is called bycatch

analagous to clear-cutting forests

Front 111

Drift Net

Back 111

Long expanses of nets that hang down in water

traps turtles, seabirds, marine mammals.

dolphins and whales are killed by these

There has been a ban on these that are longer than 1.5 miles

Front 112

Long Line Fishing

Back 112

Placing very long lines w/ thousands of baited hooks

Swordfish, tuna, cod

endangers sea turtles, pilot whales, and dolphins

Front 113

Purse Seine

Back 113

Surrounds large schools of fish spotted by aircraft w/ a large net

Net is then drawn tight

Front 114

Ocean Productivity

Back 114

Generally low and results from spatial separation of required plant nutrients

Light is restricted to surface waters

1% of all human food
10% of world's protein source

Front 115

Which country is responsible for the most fish harvesting from the oceans?

(A) India
(B) America
(C) Bangladesh
(D) China
(E) Venezuela

Back 115

(D) China (1/3)

Front 116

What is 1/3 of the total fish catch used for?

Back 116

fish oil, fish mean, and animal feed

Front 117

Maximum Sustained Yield

Back 117

The largest amount of marine organisms that can be continually harvested without causing the population to crash

Yield generally occurs when a population is maintained at half the carrying capacity

Front 118

Methods to manage fisheries in a sustainable manner (Part 1)

Back 118

1) Regulate locations and number of fish farms - also, moniter their pollution output

2) Encourage the production of herbivorous fish species

3) Require and enforce labeling of fish products that were raised or caught according to sustainable methods

4) Set catch limits FAR BELOW maximum sustainable yields

5) eliminate govt subsidies for commercial fishing

6) PRevent importation of fish from countries that don't use sustainable methods

Front 119

Methods to manage fisheris in a sustainable manner (Part 2)

Back 119

7) Place trading sanctions on foreign countries that do not respect the marine habitat, including countries that hunt whales

8) Assess fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from public waters

9) Increase the number of marine sanctuaries and no-fishing areas

10)Ban the throwing back of bycatch

11) Increase penalties for fishing techniques that don't allow escape of bycatch

12) Moniteor and destroy invasive species transported through ship ballast

Front 120

Methods to resotre habitats suitable for freshwater fish

Back 120

1) planting native vegetation on stream banks

2) rehabilitating in-stream hibitats

3) controlling erosion

4) controlling invasive species

Front 121

Aquaculture

Back 121

(aka mariculture/fish farming)

includes the commercial growing of aquatic organisms for food

Involves stocking, feeding, protection from predators, and harvesting

this is growing!!!!!!

most comes from less developed countries

For this to be profitable, the species must be marketable, inexpensive to raise, trophically efficient, and mature quickly, and disease resistant

creates monoculture - reduces biodiversity within habitats and requires large levels of nutrients in the water

Front 122

Advantages to Aquaculture

Back 122

1) cold-blooded organisms convert more feed to usable protein

2) produces significantly more protein than just catching fish

3) offers possibilities for sustainable protein-rich food production and for economic development to local communities

Front 123

Aquaculture (CONS)

Back 123

When on a large scale, this can happen:

1) pose several threats to marine and coastal biodiversity

2) creates wide-scale destruction and degradation of natural habitats

3) releaes nutrients/antibiotics in aquaculture wastes

Front 124

Fish and Wildlife Act

Back 124

Established a comprehensive national fish and shellfish resource policy directed primarily to industry

Front 125

World Bank

Back 125

Source of finanacial and technical assistance (owned by 184 member countries) to developing countries around the world

Provides low-interest loans, interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries for: education, health, infrastructure, communications, and environmental issues

The greatest single source of funds for large dam projects

Front 126

Objectives of World Bank (in environmental areas)

Back 126

1) improving the quality of life

2) improviing the quality of growth

3) protecting the quality of the regional and global commons through the "greening" of investments in agriculture, water sanitation, and other environmental products

Front 127

Tragedy of Commons

Back 127

Garrett Hardin

Front 128

Chronically undernourished people are those who receive appx. _______ calories per day

Back 128

2000

normal people = over 3000

Front 129

Greatest threat to the success of a species

Back 129

Loss of habitat

Front 130

Majority of nutrients and calories in the average human diet come from which three sources

Back 130

wheat, corn, and rice

Front 131

Planting trees/shrubs between rows of crops is an example of

Back 131

alley cropping

Front 132

One area of the world that is NOT expected to increase food production soon

Back 132

Sub-saharan africa

Front 133

Percentage of the crops grown in the world today that are transgenic or genetically modified

Back 133

>75%

Front 134

What % has urban population increased during the last 150 years

Back 134

100%

Front 135

Chronically undernourshed people represent what ratio?

Back 135

1 in every 5

Front 136

Soil that is transported by the wind

Back 136

Aeolian soil

Front 137

Appximate percentage of the world that depends on wood/charcoal for heating/cooling

Back 137

between 50% and 60%

Front 138

Of all the jobs in the US Forest Service, majority are concerned w/:

(A) Fire Management
(B) Recreation
(C) Administrative Functions
(D) Mining management
(E) Lumber management

Back 138

(B) Recreatoin

Front 139

Mechanical Energy

Back 139

There are two types of mechanical energy: potential and kinetic

Front 140

Thermal Energy

Back 140

Heat is the internal energy in substances

The vibration and mvmt of the atoms/molecules within the substance

Front 141

Chemical Energy

Back 141

this is stored in bonds between atoms in a molecule

Front 142

Electrical Energy

Back 142

This results from the motion of electrons

Front 143

Nuclear Energy

Back 143

Stored in the nuclei of atoms.

Released by either splitting or joining of atoms

Front 144

Electromagnetic

Back 144

Electromagnetic energy travels by waves

Front 145

Power

Back 145

the amount of work done per time

most common unit = kWh (kilwatt-hours)

Front 146

First Law of Thermodynamics

Back 146

energy cannot be created or destroyed

Front 147

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Back 147

When energy is converted from one form to another, a less useful form results

Energy cannot be recycled to a higher quality

Front 148

% of gasoline converted into mechanical energy

Back 148

20%; the rest is lost as heat (low-quality energy)

Front 149

Wood

Back 149

Renewable energy source

Served as the predominant form of energy up until the Industrial Revolution

Front 150

Coal

Back 150

During the Industrial Revolution, coal surpassed wood's usage

Front 151

Petroleum

Back 151

Coal was overtaken by petroleum in the 20th century along w/ natural gas

Front 152

When did the USA cease to be self sufficient (energywise)

Back 152

in the late 1950s energy production began to outpace production which led to oil imports

Front 153

Greatest to least use of energy in the United States

Back 153

1) Industrial
2) Transportantion
3) Residential/commercial

Front 154

The US accounts for ___% of the world consumption of petroleum

Back 154

25%

Then Japan, then china, then russia

Front 155

In the US, most of the energy comes from __________________ energy sources

Back 155

nonrenewable

Front 156

Nonrenewable energy sources

Back 156

The supply of these resources are limited

coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium

Front 157

Renewable Energy Sources

Back 157

Virtually unlimited, can be replinished in a relatively short amount of time

biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar, wind

Front 158

Clean Coal

Back 158

(one of the best resources of future energy needs)

Must under to processes to reduce negative environmental effects of burning coal

Front 159

Clean Coal process

Back 159

1) washing coal to remove minerals/imporuties
2) Capture the sulfure dioxide/CO2 from the flue gases

Front 160

Methane Hydrates

Back 160

(one of the best resources of future energy needs)

This could be used to form natural gas

This is methane locked in ice (form at low temp and high pressure). Found in permafrost regions and at ocean floor (high press. low temp)

could supply energy for hundreds of thousands of years

Front 161

Methane bound in hydrates is ______x the volume of methane in the air

Back 161

3000 times greater

Front 162

Natural Gas (methane hydrates) use in the future

Back 162

Use of this is expected to grow because:

1) expanded use as a transportation fuel
2) alternative source of hydrogen for fuel cells

Front 163

Waste of natural gas

Back 163

CO2!!!!! :(

Front 164

Oil Shale

Back 164

(one of the best resources of future energy needs)

Contains organic material kerogen

Extracted using In situ methods/surface mining -> surface mining of this negatively impacts the environment. Insitu can affect aquifers

Front 165

Tar Sands

Back 165

(one of the best resources of future energy needs)

contains bitumen (semisolid form of oil that doesn't flow)

Oil in tar sands is about 2/3 of the world's total reserves

Most concentrated tar sand is in Canada!

Front 166

Most of the world's energy supply is by _____

Back 166

burning oil

Front 167

Oil reserves will last for how much longer?

Back 167

50 years

Front 168

Coal Production

Back 168

Produced by decomposition of ancient organic matter under high temperature and pressure

Sulfur from the decomposition of hydrogen sulfide by anaerobic bacteria became trapped in coal

Coal supplies 25% of the world's energy (China and US consume the most)

Primary use is to produce electricity

Front 169

three types of coal

Back 169

1) lignite
2) bituminous
3) anthracite

Front 170

Lignite

Back 170

(type of coal)

1) softest and has the lowest heat content

Front 171

Bituminous

Back 171

(Type of coal)

High sulfur content

Constitutes 50% of the US reserve

Front 172

Anthracite

Back 172

(type of coal)

hard, high heat content and low sulfur content 2% of the US reserve

Front 173

What does the Clean Air Act require of Coal?

Back 173

It requires a 90% reductino in the release of sulfur-containing gases achieved by cleaning coal prior to burning, redesigning boilers, and adding limestone to the effluent

Front 174

Oil production

Back 174

Fossil fuel produced by the decomposition of deeply buried organic material

Front 175

Natural gas (aka methane/CH4) production

Back 175

decomposition of ancient organic matter under high temp/pressure

Front 176

Coal (Extraction-Purification method)

Back 176

surface mining or underground mining

Must be cleaned by scrubbing, also turned to liquid by clean coal technology

Front 177

Oil (Extraction-Purification method)

Back 177

Expensive/elaborate to extract

Usually trapped in a layer of porous sandstone

Drill a hole, then it spurts due to pressure, then you have to pump the remaining oil out

Front 178

Natural Gas (Extraction-Purification method)

Back 178

Typically flows from wells under its own pressure

Front 179

Coal (world reserves/global demand)

Back 179

expected to last 300 more years

Largest reserves in China

Front 180

Oil (world reserves/global demand)

Back 180

Primarily in the middle east

Front 181

Natural Gas

Back 181

Russia/Kazakhstan = 40%
Middle East = 25%
USA = 3%

Front 182

Synfuel

Back 182

liquid fuel synthesized from a nonpetroleum source

Coal, natural gas, oil shale, water plastics => can be liquified to form synfuels

Front 183

Synfuels (Pros)

Back 183

- Easily transported through pipelines
- Produces less air pollution
- Large supply of raw materials available worldwide to create this
- Can produce gas,diesel, or kersene directly without reforming/cracking

Front 184

Synfuels (Cons)

Back 184

- Low net energy yield (requires energy to make SNG)
- plants to produce this are expensive to build
- Would increase depletion of coal due to inherent inefficiencies
- product is more expensive than petroleum

Front 185

Coal (Pros)

Back 185

- abundant (will last for 300 years)
- unidentified reserves will last 1000 years
- US reserves can last for 300 more years
- high net energy yield
- us government subsidies keep prices low
- stable, nonexplosive

Front 186

Coal (Cons)

Back 186

- must be mined using strip/underground methods that cause disruption, erosion, runoff, and decrease of biodiversity

- 35% of all CO2 emissions come from coal; releases sulfur into the air

- underground mining is dangerous and unhealthy

- expensive to process and transport

- pollution causes global warming

- expensive to clean coal

Front 187

Oil (Pros)

Back 187

- inexpensive (but prices increasing)
- heasily transported through pipelines
- High net energy yield
- ample supply
- Large US govt subsidies
- versitile (can make many things)

Front 188

Oil (Cons)

Back 188

- world oil reserves are limited/declining
- produces pollution (SO2, NOx, and CO2)
- causes land disturbances in drilling process, which accelerates erosion
- oil spills are horrible
- disruption to wildlife habitats (Arctic Wildlife refuge)

Front 189

Oil (Cons)

Back 189

- world oil reserves are limited/declining
- produces pollution (SO2, NOx, and CO2)
- causes land disturbances in drilling process, which accelerates erosion
- oil spills are horrible
- disruption to wildlife habitats (Arctic Wildlife refuge)

Front 190

Natural Gas (Pros)

Back 190

- Pipelines and distribution networks in place
- Easily produced/transported
- Relatively inexpensive
- High net energy yield
- Produces less pollution than any other fossil fuel
- extraction is not as damaging to the environment as coal/oil

Front 191

Natural Gas (Cons)

Back 191

- Releases H2S and SO2
- Leakage of methane has greater impact on global warming than CO2
- Disruption to areas where it is collected
- extraction releases contaminated wastewater and brine

Front 192

Nuclear Fission

Back 192

During this, an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei along with by-product particles

Reaction is exothermic -> heat used to produce steam that turns generators that then produce electricity

Nuclear wastes are highly radioactive and are difficult to dispose of

Front 193

U-235

Back 193

differs from U-238 in its ability to produce a fission chain reaction

Very energy efficient

Less than 1% of all natural uranium is U-235

Front 194

Critical mass

Back 194

the minimum amount of U-235 required for a chain reaction

Front 195

U-238

Back 195

most common isotope of uranium

This is the most depleted uranium (cuz human use it!)

Front 196

PU-239 (plutonium)

Back 196

produced in breeder reactors from U-238

Plutonium fission provides about 1/3 of energy in typically commercial nuclear power plant

Front 197

Reasons for the decline of nuclear power

Back 197

1) cost overruns
2) higher-than-expected operating costs
3) safety issues
4) nuclear waste disposal issues
5) "risky"

Front 198

Core (nuclear reactor)

Back 198

contains 50,000 fuel rods

Each pellet has the energy equivalent to 1 ton of coal

Front 199

Fuel (nuclear reactor)

Back 199

Uranium oxide

use U-238 or U235

Front 200

Control Rods (nuclear reactor)

Back 200

made of boron

move in and out of the core to absorb nuetrons and slow down the reaction

Front 201

Moderator (nuclear reactor)

Back 201

A medium that reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, therby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction

Front 202

Coolant (nuclear reactor)

Back 202

Removes heat and produces steam to generate electricity

Front 203

Pressurized-Water Reactors

Back 203

1) water coolant operates at high pressure and is then pumped through the reactor core which is then heated

2) Superheated water ispumped through a steam generator

3) Through heat exchangers, a secondary loop of water is heated and converted to steam

4) steam drives one/more turbine generators -> the water is then condensed and pumped back to the steam generator

Secondary loop is isolated from the water in the reactor core and is not radioactive

A third stream of water from a nearby source is used to condense the steam

Front 204

Boiling-water reactors

Back 204

1) water coolant is permitted to boil within the core by operating at a low pressure

2) Steam produced in the reactor pressure vessel is then piped directly to the turbing generator, is condensed and then pumped back to the reator

Steam is radioactive, but there is no intermediate heat exchanger between the reactor and turbing to derease efficiency

Water condensor coolant comes from an outside source

Front 205

Light Water Reactors

Back 205

Both the moderator and the coolant are light water

Front 206

Heavy Water Reactors

Back 206

Both the moderator and the coolant are heavy water

Front 207

Graphite-Moderated Reactors

Back 207

This category uses:

light water = cooling
graphite = moderation
uranium = fuel

Requires no separated isotopes (like uranium/heavy water)

Stopped being producd

Front 208

Exotic Reactors

Back 208

Fast-breeder reactors and other experiemental installations are in this group

These produce more fissionable material than they consume

Front 209

Nuclear Power (Pros)

Back 209

- no air pollutants
- less CO2 than fossil fuels
- Water pollution is low
- Little impact to land

Front 210

Nuclear Power (Cons)

Back 210

- Nuclear wastes take millions of years to degrade
- safety issues
- nuclear plants can only be used for 15-40 years
- net energy yield is low

Front 211

Price-Anderson Nuclear Indemnity Act

Back 211

covers all nonmilitary nuclear facilities constructed before 2026

It indemnifies the nuclear industry against all liability claims arising from nuclear accidents while ensuring compensation coverage for the general public through no-fault insurance

Front 212

Comparing Health risks of Nuclear and Coal

Back 212

Premature Death:
Nuclear = 6000
Coal = 65000

Genetic Defects/Damage:
Nuclear = 4000
Coal = 200,000

Front 213

Chernobyl Ukraine

Back 213

Explosion in a nuclear power plant sent highly radioactive debris throughout norther Europe.

Many deaths, many people exposed to radiation -> cost $400 billion

Front 214

Nuclear Fusion

Back 214

can occur when extremely high temps are used to force nuclei of isotops of lightweight atoms to fuse together

Causes LOTS of energy to be released

Front 215

Hydroelectric Power

Back 215

Dams are built to trap water, which in turn is then released and channeled through turbines that generate electricity.

Front 216

Hydroelectric Power (Pros)

Back 216

1) Fams control flooding
2) low operating and maintenence costs
3) no polluting waste products
4) long life spans
5) high net-useful energy
6) areas of water recreation

Front 217

Hydroelectric Power (Cons)

Back 217

1) damns create large flooding areas behind the dam from which people are displaced. Water is slow moving and can breed pathogens

2) damns destroy wildlife habits and keep fish from migrating

3) sedimentation requires dredging. Prevents sedimentation from reaching downstream and enriching farmland

4) expensive to build

5) Destroys wild rivers

6) large-scale projects are subject to earthquakes

Front 218

Channelization

Back 218

(flood control method)

Straighten and deepen streams

Front 219

Channelization (Cons)

Back 219

CONS: removes bank vegetation and increases stream velocity which causes erosion

Front 220

Dams

Back 220

(flood control method)

These store water in reservoirs

During period of excessive rainfall, these can be overwhelmed and excess water needs to be released

Front 221

Indentify and Manage Flood-Prone Areas

Back 221

(flood control method)

By doing this, precautionary building practices like floodways, building elevation, and pumping stations can be adopted

Front 222

Levees or Floodwalls

Back 222

These are raised embankments to prevent a river from overflowing
(flood control method)

Levees contain river/stream flows but increase water velocity

Front 223

Preserve wetlands

Back 223

(flood control method)

this preseves natural flood plains and maintains biodiversity

Front 224

Salmon (in regards to dams)

Back 224

less than 5% of the salmon's original habitat is still available

Dams change the character of rivers, creating slow-moving, warm-water pools that are ideal for predators of salmon

Low water flow can slow fish down and warm water exposes them to disease

save the salmon w/ fish passage failities and fish ladders; spilling water at dams can help pass juvenile fish downstream (avoids sending them through turbines),

Water releases from upstream storage reservoirs help to increase water velocity/decrease water temps

Front 225

Impacts of Dams: Disease

Back 225

Dams in tropical areas, due to slow water mvmt, are breeding grounds for mosquitos and disease

Front 226

Dam impacts (Displacement)

Back 226

flooded areas behind damns destroy rich croplands and displace people

Front 227

Dam Impacts (Effects on watershed)

Back 227

Downstream areas are deprived of the nutrient-rich silt that would revitalize depleted soil profiles

Front 228

Dam Impacts (Impacts on wildlife)

Back 228

Migration and spawning cycles are disrupted

Front 229

Dam Impacts (Silting)

Back 229

occurs when silt that is dissolved in river water settles out behind dams

overtime, this builds up and must be removed by DREDGING

Front 230

Dam Impacts (Water Loss)

Back 230

Large losses of freshwater occur through evaporation and seepage through porous rock beds

Front 231

Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards

Back 231

The average fuel economies of a manufacturer's fleet off passenger cars or light trucks

Says how much gas mileage a car/truck should be able to get

save emissions and gas usage

Front 232

Parts of a hybrid car

Back 232

five parts:

1) engine (smaller and uses advanced technology to reduce emissions and increase efficiency)

2) fuel tank in a hybrid is the energy storage device for the gas engine

3) advanced electronics allow electric motor to act as a generator

4) generator is similar to an electric motor, but only produces electric power

5) batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric motor -- electric motor can put energy into the batteries and draw energy from them

Front 233

Parallel Hybrid

Back 233

Has a fuel tank that supplies gasoline to the engine and a set of batteries that supplies power to the electric motor

Front 234

Mass Transit

Back 234

In most of the world other than the US - Mass transport (buses, trains, subways, airline) is the main mode of transport

Front 235

Solar Energy

Back 235

Collecting and harnessing radiant energy from the sun to provide heat/electricity

Electrical power/heat can be generated at home/industrial site through photovoltaic cells/solar collecters

Front 236

Active Solar Collectors

Back 236

Use the sun's energy to heat water or air inside a home/business

Requires an electrical input (for pumps and fans)

Front 237

Passive Solar Collectors

Back 237

Require no moving parts

Structure is built to maximize solar capture (large, solar facing windows)

Front 238

Solar Energy (Pros)

Back 238

- limitless supply
- reduces reliance on foreign inputs
- No pollution
- Can store energy during the day and release it at night

Front 239

Solar Energy (Cons)

Back 239

- Inefficient where sunlight is limited or seasonal
- maintenance costs are high
- Systems deteriorate and must by periodically replaces
- Current efficiency = 10-25%

Front 240

Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Back 240

Operate similar to a battery

- two electrodes (anode/cathode) separated by a membrane

Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over another -> produces electrons that flow out of the cell to be used as electrical energy

These NEVER RUN OUT!

Front 241

Hydrogen Fuel Cells (Pros)

Back 241

- Waste product is pure water
- Small environmental Impact
- energy to produce hydrogen could come from nonpolluting source (solar)
- hydrogen is easily transported through pipelines
- Hydrogen can by stored in compounds that make it safe to handle

Front 242

Hydrogen Fuel Cells (Cons)

Back 242

- Takes energy to produce the hydrogen from water/methane
- Hydrogen gas is explosive
- gan't store it for personal cars

Front 243

Biomass

Back 243

This is any carbon-based, biologically derived fuel source

Examples: charcoal, biodiesel, methanol, ethanol, corn/sugarcane

Can also be used for building materials and biodegradable paper/plastics

Front 244

Biomass (Pros)

Back 244

- Renewable energy source as long as used sustainable
- Less SO2 and NOx produced than by burning fossil fuels
- Could supply half the world's demand for electricity
- Can reduce soil erosion/land degradation if biomass plants are planted in less desirable locations

Front 245

Biomass (Cons)

Back 245

- requires water/soil (sources declining)
- use of inorganic fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides would ruin the environment
- inefficient (70% lost as heat)
- leads to large levels of pollution

Front 246

Biomass in Brazil Case Study

Back 246

90% of the cars in Brazil run on either alcohol or gasohol

Alcohol is produce from sugarcane!!!!!

Front 247

Wind Energy

Back 247

Wing turns giant turbine blades that then power generators

Turbins can be grouped in clusters called windfarms

Front 248

Wind Energy (Pros)

Back 248

- All of US power needs could be met
- Wind farms are quickly built
- Farms can be built out on sea platforms
- Maintenance is low
- Farms are automated
- Moderate to high net energy yield
- NO POLLUTION
- Land beneath them can be used for agriculture

Front 249

Wind Energy (Cons)

Back 249

- Visual Pollution and Noise Pollution
- Can only be built where steady wind exists
- Backup systems needed when wind doesn't blow
- may interfere w/ flight patterns of birds

Front 250

Small Scale Hydroelectric

Back 250

Utilize small turbines connected to generators submerged in streams to generate power

Small energy cappacity

Doesn't impede steam navigation or fish movement

Especially attractive where powerlines aren't available

There are economic incentives for this!

Front 251

Ocean Waves and Tidal Energy

Back 251

The natural movement of tides and waves spin turbines that generate electricity

Only a few worldwide

Front 252

Ocean Waves/Tidal Energy (Pros)

Back 252

1) no pollution
2) minimal environmental impact
3) Moderate net energy yield

Front 253

Ocean Waves/Tidal Energy (Cons)

Back 253

1) Constructure Expensive
2) Few Suitable Sites
3) Equipment can be damaged by storms and corrosion

Front 254

Geothermal

Back 254

Heat contained in underground rocks and fluids from molten rock produce pockets of undergroun steam and water

This steam can be used to turn turbines and generate electricity

Front 255

Geothermal (pros)

Back 255

- Moderate net energy yield
- Limitless and reliable
- Little air pollution
- Good cost

Front 256

Geothermal (Cons)

Back 256

- Reservoir sites are scarce
- Noise, odor, land subsidence
- Source can be depleted if not properly managed
- can degrade ecosystem due to corrosive, thermal, or saline wastes

Front 257

Lowest average generating cost comes from what energy source

(A) Large hydroelectric facilities
(B) Solar Photovoltaic
(C) Geothermal
(D) Coal
(E) Nuclear

Back 257

(A) Large hydroelectric facilities

Front 258

Fastest growing renewable energy resource in the world today

Back 258

WIND!

Front 259

When will US oil reserves be depleted?

Back 259

25 years!

Front 260

Low-Throughput Society

Back 260

aka a low waste society

- focuses on matter and energy eddiciency through reusing and recycling, using renewable resources at a rate no faster than they can be replensihed

- Control population growth
- Avoid unncecessary consumption

Front 261

Primary Pollutants

Back 261

Emitted directly into the air from natural sources such as volcanoes

(particulates, NO2, SO2, CO2, carbon monoxide)

Front 262

Secondary Polltants

Back 262

Result from the reaction of primary pollitants in the atmosphere to form a new pollutant

(SO3, sulfuric acid, ozone)

Front 263

Nitrogen Dioxide

Back 263

Forms when fuels are burned at high temperatures

Results from: forest fires, volcanoes, lightning, bacterial action in soil

Results in lung irritation and damage, suppresses plant growth, carcinogen

Front 264

Ozone

Back 264

Component of Photochemical Smog

Formed by sunlight reacting with NOx and VOCs

Causes lung irritation/damage, coughing wheezing

Damages plants, rubber and plastics

Front 265

Sulfur Dioxide

Back 265

Produced by burning high-sulfure oil or coal

Combines w/ water in the air to produce acid precip -> reduces the

Significant decreases in this = result of the Clean air act and the Acid Rain Program

Front 266

Suspended Particulate MAtter

Back 266

Includde sut, diesel soot, lead and asbestos

Cause lung irritation and damage

Many = mutagens, teratogens, carcinogens

Reducetion of these would produce health benefits 10x greater than similar reduction in all other air pollutants combined

Front 267

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Back 267

Include organic compounds that have a high vapor pressure

found in paints, aerosol sprays

Causes respiratory irritation and damage

Carcinogenic, central nervous system damage

More of an affect indoors than outdoors

Front 268

SMOG (industrial)

Back 268

tends to be sulfur based and is called gray-air smog

Front 269

SMOG (photochemical)

Back 269

Catalyzed by UV radiation

Tends to be nitrogen-based
Brown air SMOG

Production is halted at night

Front 270

Dry Deposition

Back 270

Acidic gases and particles

1/2 acidity in the atmosphere falls back to Earth through dry deposition

Wind blows these oto cars, homes and trees

When rain comes, this acid combines w/ acid in the water and makes effects even more acidic

Front 271

Acid deposition due to sulfur

Back 271

1) Sulfur dioxide is introduced into the atmosphere by burning coal and oil, smelting metals, organic decay

2) combines w/ water vapor

3) reacts w/ oxygen to form sulfuric acid

Front 272

Acid Desposition due to nitrogen oxides

Back 272

1) nitrogen oxides - formed by burning oil, coal, or natural gas, lightning, forest fires

2) nitrogen monoxide reacts to w/ oxygen produce nitrogen dioxide gas

3) then it reacts w/ water to produce nitrous and nitric acids

Front 273

Effects of Acid Rain

Back 273

1) causes acidification of lakes and streams
2) damage of trees
3) creates unhealthy environments for decomposers and other fungi
4) accelerates decay of building materials (including statues and structures)

Front 274

Acid Shock

Back 274

caused by the rapid melting of snow pack that contains dry acidic particles

Results in 5-10x more impact than acid rain

Front 275

Urban Heat Islands

Back 275

occur in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings

Caused by:

Building made up of materials that are slower to release heat (brick,concrete), lack of water or vegetation

Can cause a local greenhouse effect and can harm people from the amount of heat

Can be reduced by having buildings be white or reflective - and also increasing the amount of landscaping and parks

Front 276

Canyon Effect

Back 276

Results from buildings reflecting and absorbing heat and blocking winds that reduce heat through convection

Front 277

Temperature Inversion

Back 277

When air temperatures increase w/ height above the ground instead of decrease in temperature w/ height

Warm air mass traps a cooler one below and the air becomes still

Front 278

Indoor air pollution

Back 278

- Circulation may be restricted
- People spend a lot of time inside
- Indoor pollutants may be 25-62% greater than outside levels

Some pollutants include: molds, bacteria, carbon monoxide, radon, allergens, smoke

Front 279

Remdiation and Reduction Strategies

Back 279

1) Emphasizing tax incentive for pollution control rather than fines and penalties

2) Setting legislative standards for energy efficiency

3) Increasing funding for research into renewable energy sources

4) INcorporate incentives for reducing air pollution into trade policy

5) Phasing out two-cycle gas engines

6) Providing incentives to use mass transit

7) Raising CAFE standards

8) using energy star applainces

Front 280

EPA Acid Rain Program

Back 280

designed to reduce Sulfur Dioxide and NOx -> the primary causes of acid rain

program includes:
- Setting NOx admissions standards
- Market based allowance system (to those who reduce emissions, there are rewards)

Front 281

Clean Air Act

Back 281

Originally signed into law to protect public health from air pollution and to limit the effects of air pollution on the environment

Front 282

Kyoto Protocol

Back 282

Required US to reduce greenhouse emissions 7% within 5 years or it would be punished

But this was seen as unattainable

US felt that all of the burden was falling on developed countries rather than developing countries

Front 283

Kyoto Protocol (General Definition)

Back 283

An agreement among 150 nations requiring greenhouse gas reductions

Front 284

Noise Pollution

Back 284

Unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment, causes hearing loss.

Also, immediate effects may be temporary or may become permanent. May include cardio problems w/ an accelerated heatbeat, high bloodpressure, pupil dilation, nervousness, anxiety, isomnia...

(motor vehicles, aircraft noise, rail transport noise)

Front 285

Federal Noise Control Act

Back 285

Noise regulation by governmental agencies effectively began in the US with this

promotes an environment for all American free from noise that jeopardizes their health

Front 286

Controlling Noise Pollution

Back 286

- Noise barriers
- limits on vehicle speeds
- quiter jet engines
- local law enforcement

Front 287

Water Pollution

Back 287

Can originate from either a point or nonpoint source

Front 288

Point Source (Water Pollution)

Back 288

occurs when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water

Example: pipe discharges effluent directly into a body of water

this is usually monitered and regulated in developing countries

Front 289

Nonpoint source

Back 289

Deliver pollutants idirectly through transport or environmental change

Example: when fertilizer from a farm field is carried into a stream by rain (runoff).

Much more difficult to moniter/control and count for the majority of contaminants in streams and lakes

Front 290

Sources of water pollution: LIST THEM BITCH!

Back 290

air pollution, chemicals, microbiological sources, mining, noise, nutrients, oxygen depleting substances, suspended matter, thermal sources

Front 291

Air pollution (in terms of water pollution)

Back 291

Pollutants fall out of the air into the water

Cause:
- mercury contamination in fish
- acidification
- eutrophication

Carbonate structures of corals, algae, and plankton to dissolve -> they are the base of the food pyramid so this ruins everything

Front 292

Chemicals (in terms of water pollution)

Back 292

Can bioaccumulate -> then biomagnify poisoning people who eat them

Raod runoff and other nonspill sources heavily contaminate waters

Discharge of oily wastes and oil-contaminated ballast water and wash water

These stay in water for a long time and affect the reproduction of these organisms and increase their susceptibility to disease

Medicines that have passed through our body, animal farming anitbiotics/growth hormones send lots of chemicals to water

Front 293

Microbiological Sources (in terms of water pollution)

Back 293

Pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa can reult in swimmers getting sick and fish/shellfish becoming contaminated

Comes from wastewater being passed into water without prior treatment

Leaking septic tanks and other sources of sewage

Front 294

Mining (in terms of water pollution)

Back 294

Mining exposes heavy metals and sulfur compounds that were previously locked away in earth

Rainwater leeches these compounds -> results in acid mine drainage and heavy-metal pollution that can continue long after mining operations have ceased

- Leech travels to freshwater supplies

(in gold mining, cyanide poured to extract gold may get to local water)

Mining countries in developing countries dump their mine products directly into water as a method of disposal

Makes water devoid of life

Front 295

Noise Pollution (in terms of water pollution)

Back 295

Marine organisms use sound to communicate, navigate, and hunt

Oceanic water noise pollution may make it harder for them to hunt and detect predators -> they may not be able to navigate or communicate properly

Front 296

Nutrients (in terms of water pollution)

Back 296

Phosphorus/Nitrogen are necessary for plant growth and are plentiful in untreated wastewater

When added to lakes and streams, they can cause the growth of aquatic weeds that block waterways as well as algal blooms

Human caused = cultural eutrophication

Front 297

Oxygen Depleting Substances (in terms of water pollution)

Back 297

Biodegradable wastes are used as nutrients by bacteria

Excessive biodegradable waste can cause oxygen depletion

Results in increases in anaerobic bacteria - and decreases aerobic organisms such as fish

Front 298

Suspended Matter (in terms of water pollution)

Back 298

Eventually settle out of water and form silt/mud at the bottom (toxic materials can accumulate in this sediment)

when local forests are cut, this sediment runs back into water

Plastics can entangle fish - plastic broken down into microparticles can be ingested by small marine organisms and move up the food chain

Front 299

Thermal Sources (in terms of water pollution)

Back 299

Produced by industry and power plants

Heat reduces the ability of water to hold oxygen and causes death to organisms that cannot tolerate heat/ low oxygen levels

Front 300

Minimata Disease

Back 300

27 tons of mercury dumped into Bay

It collected in fish/shellfish

Resulted in blurred vision, hearing loss, loss of muscular coordianation, reproductive disorders

Front 301

Cultural Eutrophication

Back 301

- process whereby human activity increases the amount of nutrients entering surface water

- Most important nutrients = nitrates and phosphates! (come from animal wastes)

Front 302

Cultural Eutrophication (NITRATES)

Back 302

- nitrates water soluble
- found in fertilizers, remain on fields, accumulate, leach into grounwater -> endup in surface funoff or they can accumulate in air and cause acid rain

Cause nitrate poisoning -> reduces the effectiveness of hemoglobin

- more damaging in wetland systems where nitrogen is the limiting factor

Front 303

Cultural Eutrophication (PHOSPHATES)

Back 303

- Not water soluble
- Soil erosion contributes to the buildup of phosphates in water supplies

- Phosphate buildup is more damaging in freshwater systems where phosphorus is the limiting factor

Front 304

Algal nutrients

Back 304

(nitrates and phosphates)

- increased concentrations of these increases carrying capacity of lakes and streams

Front 305

Algal bloom

Back 305

Explosions in the amount of algae as a result of cultural eutrophication are called algal blooms

Front 306

Algal bloom steps

Back 306

1) increased algae due to increased nitrate/phosphate concentrations result in less light penetration, killing off deeper plants and their supply of oxygen to water

2) oxygen concentration dereases in the water due to increased materials for decomposers

3) lower oxygen causes fish to die

4) decaying fish produces toxins in water

Front 307

Control Methods: Cultural Eutrophication

Back 307

1) Planting vegetation along streambeds slows erosion and absorbs nutrients

2) controlling application of fertilizers

3) controlling runoff

4) using denitrifying bacteria that convert nitrates into tmospheric nitrogen

Front 308

% of people in the US that depend on grounwater for water supplies

Back 308

50%

in some countries it can reach 95%

Front 309

Where does half of the water used for agriculture in the US come from?

Back 309

Groundwater

Front 310

Groundwater Pollution

Back 310

In the US, 34 billion litres of the most hazardous liquid waste solvents, heavy metals, and radioactive materials are injected directly into deep grounwater via thousands of injection wells

Water entering an aquifer remains for 1400 years so once it is contaminated, it is virtually impossible to remove the pollutants

Front 311

Adsorption

Back 311

(drinking water treatment method)

Contaminants stick to the surface of granular or powdered activated charcoal

Front 312

Disinfection

Back 312

(drinking water treatment method)

Chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV Radiation

Front 313

Filtration

Back 313

(drinking water treatment method)

Removes clays silts, natural organic matter, and precipitants from the treatment process

Clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection

Front 314

Flocculation-Sedimentation

Back 314

(drinking water treatment method)

Process that combines small particles into larger particles that then settle out of the water as sediment

Synthetic organic polymers, alum, and iron salts = usually used to promote coagulation

Front 315

Ion Exchange

Back 315

(drinking water treatment method)

Removes inorganic consituents

Front 316

Absorption

Back 316

(water remediation technique)

solutes concentrate at the surface of a sorbent, thereby reducing their concentration

Front 317

Aeration

Back 317

Bubbling air through water increases rates of oxidation

Front 318

Air Stripping

Back 318

VOCs are separated from grounwater by exposing water to air

Front 319

Bioreactors

Back 319

Grounwater is acted upon by microorganisms

Front 320

Constructed wetlands

Back 320

Uses natural geochemical and biological processes that parallel natural wetlands

Front 321

Deep-well injection

Back 321

Uses injection wells to place treated or untreated liquid waste into geologic formations that do not pose a potential risk to groundwater

Front 322

Phytoremediation

Back 322

Uses plants to remove contamination

Front 323

UV oxidation

Back 323

uses ultraviolet light, ozone, or hydrogen peroxide to destroy contaminants

Front 324

Sewage Treatment

Back 324

Incorporates physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove contaminants from wastewater

Front 325

Septic System

Back 325

Consits of a tank and drain field

1) wastewater enters tank where solids settle
2) anaerobic digestion using bacteria treates the settled soils - reducing their volume
3) Excess liquid leaves the tank and moves through a pipe w/ holes in it to a leach field where water percolates into soil

nitrogen may not decompose in system

25% of americans use these!!!!!!!!

Front 326

Primary Treatment

Back 326

PHYSICAL!

Reduce oils, grease, fats, sand, grit, and coarse soilds

Specific steps include sand catches, screens, and sedimentation

Front 327

Secondary Treatment

Back 327

Designed to degrade the biological content of the sewage derived from waste

filters, activated sludge, trickling filter eds using plastic media, secondary sedimentation

Front 328

Tertiary Treatment

Back 328

Raises the effluent quality to required standard before it is discharges

Sand filtration, lagooning, contructing wetlands, nutrient removal, denitrification, disinfection using UC light

Front 329

Water Quality Act

Back 329

Established water purity standards with states retaining initial responsibility for water purify

Front 330

Clean water act

Back 330

Regulates pollutants going into water

Front 331

Organic Waste

Back 331

Kitchen waste, flowers, vegetables

usually decomposes within 2 weeks

Wook takes 10-15 years

Front 332

Radioactive Waste

Back 332

Spent fuel rods and fire alarms

Radioactive wastes can take hundreds of thousands of years to decompose

Front 333

Recyclable

Back 333

Paper, glass, metals, plastics

Plastics can take up to 1 million years to decompose

Glass doesn't decompose

Front 334

Soiled Wastes

Back 334

Cotton and cloth can take 2-5 months to decompose

Front 335

Toxic Wastes

Back 335

Chemicals, pesticides -> take hundreds of years to decompose

Front 336

Amounts and types of municipal solid wastes

Back 336

Paper= 38%
Yard Waste = 18%
Misc = 14%
Plastic= 8%
Metal= 8%
Glass= 7%
Food= 7%

Front 337

US has ___% of world's population and produces ___% of the world's total waste

Back 337

5% of the worlds population

33% of the world's total waste

Front 338

Burning/Incineration/Energy Recovery (Pros)

Back 338

- heat can be used to supplement energy requirements
- reduces impact on landfills
- mass burning inexpensive
- leaves only 10-20% of original volume
- US incinerates 15% of waste
- France, Japan, Sweden incerate >40% of waste and use heat to generate electricity

Front 339

Burning/Incineration/Energy Recovery (Cons)

Back 339

- air pollution
- sorting out stuff that cannot be burned = expensive
- no way of knowing toxic consequences
- ash is more concentrated w/ toxic material

Front 340

Composting (Pros)

Back 340

- creates nutrient-rich soil additive
- aids in water retention
- slows down erosion
- no major toxic inssues

Front 341

Composting (cons)

Back 341

- NIMBY
- Public reaction to odor, vermin, insects

Front 342

Remanufacturing

Back 342

- Recovers materials that would have been discarded
- beneficial to inner cities as an industry because material is available and jobs are needed

Front 343

Detoxifying

Back 343

Reduces impact on the environment

Expensive

Front 344

Exporting

Back 344

(PROS) Gets rid of problems immediately; source of income for some countries

(CONS) garbage imperialism/envrinomental racism; expensive; long-term effects unknown

Front 345

Sanitary Landfills (Pros)

Back 345

- Waste is covered each day w/ dirt to prevent insects/rodents

- plastic liners, drainage systems help comtrol

Front 346

Sanitary Landfills (Cons)

Back 346

- NIMBY
- Rising land prices
- Transportation costs to the landfill
- Legal liability
- suitable areas limited

Front 347

Recycling (pros)

Back 347

- reduces impact on landfills
- turns waste into an inexpensive resource
- reduces dependence on foreign oil
- reduces air/water pollution
- reduces energy requirements to produce product
- reduces need for raw materials

Front 348

Recycling (cons)

Back 348

- poor regulation
- Fluctuations in the market price
- Throwaway packaging is more popular
- Current govt policies favor extraction of raw materials (energy, water, raw materials sold below real costs to stimulate new jobs and the economy)

Front 349

Normal Rainfall has a pH of about ___

Back 349

5.6

Front 350

According to EPA, about ______ of all commercial buildings in the US are classified as sick

Back 350

15%

Front 351

IN developing countries the most likely cause of respiratory disease would be

Back 351

particulates PM10

Front 352

ACid precipitation, leaching out the metal ))))), causes fish and other aquatic organisms to die from acid shock

Back 352

Aluminum (Al)

Front 353

The pollutant that best illustrates the effectiveness of legislation

Back 353

Pb

Front 354

Major source of solid waste in the USA comes from.....

Back 354

mining wastes

Front 355

Largest type of domestic solid waste in the US

Back 355

PAPER!

Front 356

Environmental Risk Analysis

Back 356

The comparing of the risk of a situation to its related benefits

Allows one to evaluate and deal w/ the consequences of events based on their probability

Front 357

Revealed Preferences

Back 357

Observed observations on the risks people actually take

Front 358

Expressed Preferences

Back 358

Often measured through public opinion polls

Front 359

Natural Standards

Back 359

Levels of risk humans have lived with in the past

Front 360

Extenernal Influences (in terms of risk analysis)

Back 360

factored into decisions regarding risk

include public concern, economic interest, and legislative actions that affect the possible choices available

Front 361

Risk assessment

Back 361

objective estimation of risk

Front 362

Risk management

Back 362

Determining what to do about the risk

includes risk identification and use of mitigating measures to reduce risk

can be used to prevent or mitigate the risk

should take into account soietal, economic, and political factors when weighing strategies for risk managemetn

Front 363

Risk Mgmt Strategy:

Market Based Method

Back 363

RElies on market forces to provide indirect controls

Usually the response from industry

Front 364

Risk Mgmt Strategy:

Hierarchical Method

Back 364

Relies on explicit controls and top-down mgmt styles

Usually the response from lawmakrs

Front 365

Risk Mgmt Strategy:

Back 365

Relies on emotions

Usually the response from the citizens

Front 366

Rational method

Back 366

RElies on logic and facts in decision making

Usually response from researchers

Front 367

Acute Health Effects

Back 367

Single LArge exposure is involved

Acute health effects are often reversible

Front 368

Chronic Health Effects

Back 368

Prolonged or repeated exposures over a long period of time

Syntoms may not be readily apparent

Effects = irreversible

Front 369

Dose-Response Relationships

Back 369

describe change in effect on an organism or a population caused by differing levels of exposures to a substance

Used to determine whether various environmental risks are safe or hazardous

Front 370

Dose-Response Curve

Back 370

Graph that relates the amount of drug/toxin given compared w/ response

Front 371

Threshold Dose

Back 371

The point on the Dose-response curve where the response is first observed

For most drugs, desired effect is found slightly above the threshold dose -> when past this point, negative side effects appear

Front 372

LD50 (lethal dose, 50%)

Back 372

median lethal dose of a pollutant or drug that kills half the members of a tested population within 14 days

- most common indicator of toxicity

Front 373

EC50

Back 373

concentration of a compound where 50% of its effect is observed

Front 374

IC50

Back 374

concentration os a pollutant/drug that is required for obtaining inhibition

Front 375

Air Toxics

Back 375

Group of air pollutatns that are known/suspected to cause serious health problems

People exposed have more chance of cancer/immune/neurological/reproductive damage

Front 376

Abestos

Back 376

Lead to lung cancer

The greater/longer the exposure, the greater the risk of contracting disease

symptoms of these diseases don't usually appear until about 20-30 years after exposure

Front 377

Carbon Monoxide (health)

Back 377

Enters the bloodstream through the lungs and binds chemically to hemoglobin

Interferes w/ the ability of the blood to transport oxygen to organs and tissues throughout the body

Front 378

Indoor Air Pollutants (health)

Back 378

may be acute or chronic

headaches, dizziness, usually short term and treatable

Front 379

Lead (Pb)

Back 379

exposure is through inhalation and ingestion of lead in food, water, soil, dust

Can cause seizures, brain, and kidney damage

CHILDREN ARE AT MOST RISK because their bodies grow quickly

Front 380

Nitrogen Dioxide

Back 380

- coughing, wheezing
- lung functions affected
- may cause permanent structural changes in the lungs

Front 381

Ozone

Back 381

Reactivity of this causes health problems:

- reduction in lung capacity
- reduces lung function
- pulmonary congestion

Front 382

PM10

Back 382

Coarse particulates cause asthma and premature death (due to heat disease/lung disease)

Can increase susceptibility to respiratory infection and can aggravate existing resp. diseases like asthma and chronic bronchitis

Front 383

Sulfur Dioxide

Back 383

High concentrations of sulfur dioxide affect breathing and may aggravate existing resp./cardio disease

children and elderly most affected

Front 384

Smoking

Back 384

Cigarettes contain over 4700 chem. compounds

Long-term smoking greatly increases likelihood of develping many fatal conditions

Responsible for 85% of lung cancers

Front 385

Hazardous Waste

Back 385

waste with properties that make it dangerous/harmful to human health or the environment

Corrosives, ignitables, reactive

Front 386

Corrosive

Back 386

(HAZARDOUS)
Strong acids/bases that can corrode metal containers:

battery acid

Front 387

discarded commercial produces

Back 387

(HAZARDOUS)
specific commercial chemical products in an unused for

Some pesticides and some pharmaceutical products become this when discarded

Front 388

Ignitable

Back 388

(HAZARDOUS)

create fires under certain conditions
Spontaneously combustible -> waste oils and used solvents

Front 389

Reactive

Back 389

(HAZARDOUS)

Unstable under normal conditions

Cause explosions, toxic fumes, gases, vapors

Front 390

Toxic

Back 390

Wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed

When these are land disposed, contaminated liquid may leach from the wate and pollute groundwater

Front 391

Bioremediation

Back 391

the use of bacteria and enzymes to break down hazardous materials

PROS: inexpensive, low energy use, no pollution, easy to build

CONS: slow, effective only as far down as roots will reach, some toxic materials can evaporate through plants

Front 392

Inceneration

Back 392

Can release air pollutants and toxic ASh

Front 393

Arid Region Unsaturated Zone

Back 393

The unsaturated zone is the subsurface between the land surface and underlying aquifers

Includes sites in the arid western US that are being relied upon to isolate lots of hazardous waste

Front 394

Landfill

Back 394

PRO: inexpensive

CON: groundwater seepage and contamination

Front 395

Salt Formations

Back 395

Toxic wastes are deposited in deep salt formations

The absense of flowing water within natural salt formations prevents dissolution and subsequent spreading of waste products

Front 396

Surface Impoundments

Back 396

Excavated ponds pits or lagoons

Front 397

Underground injection

Back 397

low cost, wastes can be retrieves

leaks, earthquake issues, grounwater contamination

Front 398

Cost-benefit analysis

Back 398

technique for deciding whether to make a change

determine an action and levels of action that achieve the greatest net economic benefit

Front 399

Cost-effectiveness

Back 399

Implementing a specific environmental health or safety objective at the least cost

Emphasis on achieving the objective

Front 400

Cost-benefit analysis applies to three different economic situations

Back 400

1) help judge whether public services provided by the private sector are adequate

2) can be used when judging and sessing inefficiencies

3) helps determine how to meet societal needs in a cost-effective manner in areas that only govt can address

Front 401

Corrosive

Back 401

(HAZARDOUS)
Strong acids/bases that can corrode metal containers:

battery acid

Front 402

discarded commercial produces

Back 402

(HAZARDOUS)
specific commercial chemical products in an unused for

Some pesticides and some pharmaceutical products become this when discarded

Front 403

Ignitable

Back 403

(HAZARDOUS)

create fires under certain conditions
Spontaneously combustible -> waste oils and used solvents

Front 404

Reactive

Back 404

(HAZARDOUS)

Unstable under normal conditions

Cause explosions, toxic fumes, gases, vapors

Front 405

Toxic

Back 405

Wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed

When these are land disposed, contaminated liquid may leach from the wate and pollute groundwater

Front 406

Bioremediation

Back 406

the use of bacteria and enzymes to break down hazardous materials

PROS: inexpensive, low energy use, no pollution, easy to build

CONS: slow, effective only as far down as roots will reach, some toxic materials can evaporate through plants

Front 407

Inceneration

Back 407

Can release air pollutants and toxic ASh

Front 408

Arid Region Unsaturated Zone

Back 408

The unsaturated zone is the subsurface between the land surface and underlying aquifers

Includes sites in the arid western US that are being relied upon to isolate lots of hazardous waste

Front 409

Landfill

Back 409

PRO: inexpensive

CON: groundwater seepage and contamination

Front 410

Salt Formations

Back 410

Toxic wastes are deposited in deep salt formations

The absense of flowing water within natural salt formations prevents dissolution and subsequent spreading of waste products

Front 411

Surface Impoundments

Back 411

Excavated ponds pits or lagoons

Front 412

Underground injection

Back 412

low cost, wastes can be retrieves

leaks, earthquake issues, grounwater contamination

Front 413

Cost-benefit analysis

Back 413

technique for deciding whether to make a change

determine an action and levels of action that achieve the greatest net economic benefit

Front 414

Cost-effectiveness

Back 414

Implementing a specific environmental health or safety objective at the least cost

Emphasis on achieving the objective

Front 415

Cost-benefit analysis applies to three different economic situations

Back 415

1) help judge whether public services provided by the private sector are adequate

2) can be used when judging and sessing inefficiencies

3) helps determine how to meet societal needs in a cost-effective manner in areas that only govt can address

Front 416

Externality

Back 416

wide variety of costs and benefits that are not included in prices or the effects of an action on people who were not a part of the process

Front 417

biogeochemical cycles

Back 417

how carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur move through the environment

Front 418

Reservoir

Back 418

a place where a large quantity of a nutrient sits for for a long period of time

(in water cycle, ocean = reservoir)

Front 419

Exchange Pool

Back 419

A site where nutrients sit for only a short period of time

example = cloud

Front 420

Residency Time

Back 420

the amount of time a nutrient spends in a reservoir or exchange pool

cloud = a few days; ocean = a few years

Front 421

Energy sources for biogeochemical cycles

Back 421

the sun

heat energy from mantle/core of the earth

Front 422

Law of conservation of matter

Back 422

nothing can be created nor destroyed

Front 423

Trace elements

Back 423

necessary in small amounts for living organisms

Front 424

Precipitation

Back 424

the water condenses in its gaseous state and falls due to the pull of gravity

Front 425

Evaporation

Back 425

water is returned to the atmosphere from earth's surface and living organisms

people = respire
plants = transpire
oceans/lakes= large amounts of water evap here

Front 426

Infiltration

Back 426

The water sinks below the surface of the land and becomes grounwater

Front 427

Respiration

Back 427

animals and plants breathe and give off carbon dioxide

Front 428

Photosynthesis

Back 428

plants take in carbon dioxide, water, and energy from the sun to create carbohydrates

Front 429

Carbon released into atmosphere

Back 429

1) respiration (plants and animals)

2) burning of fossil fuels (organic matter subjected to heat/pressure)

3) decaying organic matter (by bacteria/fungi)

4) volcanoes

Front 430

Carbon reservoirs

Back 430

1st largest = ocean

2nd largest = earth's rocks

Front 431

lightning storms

Back 431

can change atmospheric nitrogen into usable form

Front 432

ammonia/nitrates

Back 432

usable forms of nitrogen

Front 433

Nitrogen Fixation (1)

Back 433

- most of this occurs with the help of bacteria in the soil (like Rhizobium)

Front 434

Nitrogen fixing bacteria

Back 434

associated with roots of legumes

if the genes of these bacteria were incorporated into plants, it would reduce the amount of fertilizer used

Front 435

Nitrification

Back 435

Soil converts ammonium into nitrate

Front 436

Assimilation

Back 436

plants absorbs ammonia ions, and nitrate ions through their roots.

Heterotrophs receive this back when they consume plan'ts proteins and nucleic acids

Front 437

Ammonification

Back 437

Decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms and other waste to ammonia or ammonium ions which can be reused by plants

Front 438

Denitrification

Back 438

ammonia and nitrates are converted back into nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide gas

these rise into the atmosphere

Front 439

Phosphorus

Back 439

Major component of nucleic acids (DNA = phosphate, sugar, nitrogenic base)

Phospho-lipid bilayer <3

This is a limiting factor for plant growth. Plants that lack a lot of phosphorus are stunted

Front 440

Phosphorus cycles definition

Back 440

more local than either of the other cycles

phosphorus does not go into the air

Front 441

The phosphorus cycle

Back 441

1) phosphorus is mainly in rocks, soil, sediments

2) released from rocks during weathering in the form of phosphate (soluble, easily absorbed by plants)

3) phosphates that go into water can be incorporated into rocks on the ocean floor.

4) through ocean mixing or upwelling, these rocks can rise to the surface waters and be subjected again to the processes of the terrestrial cycle

Front 442

Human effect on the phosphorus cycle

Back 442

mining phosphorus rich rocks for fertilizers

this returns to water in runoff and affects aquasystems through eutrophication and the overgrowth of algae

Front 443

sulfur

Back 443

a component that makes up proteins and vitamins

plants get it by absorbing it through roots from soil

Animals obtain sulfur by consuming plants

Front 444

Where is sulfur (SARO... mary?)

Back 444

1) rocks
2) salts
3) deep in the ocean
4) atmosphere

Front 445

How sulfur enters atmosphere

Back 445

1) volcanoes
2) bacteria
3) decay of organisms
4) mainly released through industrial processes (produce sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide)

Front 446

Autotrophs

Back 446

Can produce their own organic compounds from inorganic chemicals

Front 447

Heterotrophs

Back 447

obtain energy by consuming other organisms or products created by other organisms

Front 448

Anaerobic Autotrophs

Back 448

Can produce food from inorganic molecules through the process of chemosynthesis

Front 449

Chemosynthesis

Back 449

carried out by specialized bacteria (chemiotrophs)

These are found in the hydrothemal vents deep in the ocean

Front 450

Primary consumer

Back 450

includes herbivores

these only consume producers (plant/algae)

Front 451

Detritivores

Back 451

NOT BACTERIA OR FUNGI

these get energy from nonliving organic matter (dead animals or fallen leaves)

Front 452

Decomposers

Back 452

Bacteria/fungi that absorb nutrients from nonliving organic plant matter:

waste, corpses, plant material

They convert organic material to inorganic forms

Front 453

how many levels of the food chain can organisms occupy?

Back 453

more than one. When humans eat a chicken salad, they are primary consumers and secondary consumers

Front 454

Trophic level

Back 454

each of the feeding levels in a food chain is a trophic level

the amount of energy available to each one decreases as the levels get higher

(only 10% of energy is passed onto the next level - most is lost as heat along the way)

Front 455

Primary energy source

Back 455

Sun, inorganic chemicals =)

Front 456

Energy pyramid

Back 456

organisms at the base have the most energy available to them

organisms at the top have the least

This CANNOT be inverted

Front 457

Bioaccumulation

Back 457

the accumulation of a substance (like a toxic chemical) in the tissues of a living organism

(usually toxins and heavy metals)

Front 458

Biomagnification

Back 458

increasing concentration of toxin molecules at successively higher trophic levels in the food chain

(usually toxins and heavy metals)

Front 459

Food chains

Back 459

demonstrate the myriad of feeding relationships that are in an ecosystem

Front 460

biomes

Back 460

ecosystems based on land

Front 461

aquatic life zones

Back 461

ecosystems based in aqueous environments

Front 462

ecotones

Back 462

the transitional area where two ecosystems meet

Front 463

ecozones/ecoregions

Back 463

smaller regions within ecosystems that share similar physical features

Front 464

Deciduous Forest (rainfall/soil type)

Back 464

25-250 cm

rich soil w/ high organic content

Front 465

Deciduous Forest (major vegetation)

Back 465

hardwood trees

Front 466

Deciduous Forest (location)

Back 466

North America, Europe, Eastern Asia, Australia

Front 467

Tropical Rainforest (rainfall/soil type)

Back 467

200-400 cm

Poor soil quality

Front 468

Tropical Rainforest (major vegetation)

Back 468

Tall trees w/ few lower limbs

Vines; epiphytes

plants are adapted to low light intensity

Front 469

Tropical Rainforest (world location)

Back 469

South America, West Africa, Southeast Asia

Front 470

Grasslands (rainfall/soil type)

Back 470

10-60 cm

nutrient rich soil

Front 471

Grasslands (major vegetation)

Back 471

sod forming grass

Front 472

Grasslands (location)

Back 472

North American plains and praries

russian steppes

Argentinian pampas; south african velds

Front 473

Taiga/Coniferous Forest (rainfall/soil type)

Back 473

20-60 cm mostly in the summer

soil is acidic due to vegetation

Front 474

Taiga/Coniferous Forest (major vegetation)

Back 474

Coniferous trees

Front 475

Taiga/Coniferous Forest (world location)

Back 475

Northern North America

Northern Eurasia (russia)

Front 476

Chaparral/Scrub Forest (annual rainfall/soil type)

Back 476

50-75 cm mostly in the winter

soil is shallow and infertile

Front 477

Chapparal/Scrub Forest (major vegetation)

Back 477

Small trees w/ large hard leaves

Spiny Shrubs

Front 478

Chapparal/Scrub Forest (world location)

Back 478

western North America/the mediterranean region

Front 479

Deserts (cold and hot)

(annual rainfall)

Back 479

less than 25 cm

Soil has a course texture (sandy)

Front 480

Deserts (major vegetation)

Back 480

Cactus

Other low water adapted plants

Front 481

Deserts (world location)

Back 481

30 degrees north and south of the equator

Front 482

Law of Tolerance

Back 482

describes the degree to which living organisms are capable of tolerating changes in their environment

basis for natural selection -> drives evolution

Front 483

Law of the Minimum

Back 483

Living organisms will continue to live, consuming available materials until the supply of these materials is exhausted

Front 484

Evolution

Back 484

results in biodiversity

Front 485

Phylogenic tree

Back 485

describes the evolutionary relationships between species

Front 486

Species

Back 486

the process of how new species are formed

Front 487

Species

Back 487

Group of organisms that are capable of breeding with one another

Front 488

Evolutionary Fitness

Back 488

these organisms survive and their genes are part of the population's subsequent generation

Front 489

Hardy-Weingberg principle

Back 489

an idealized large population that is not evolving

No natural populations meet the criteria for this model

Front 490

Microevolution

Back 490

small changes in a populations gene pool

these mutations get passed from generation to generation

Front 491

Genetic Drift

Back 491

event drastically reduces the size of a particular population

the number of alleles is significantly reduced

Front 492

Bottleneck effect (a type of genetic drift)

Back 492

reduction in genetic diversity due to genetic drift (when there is a large catastrophe that kills off many members of a population - thereby reducing the number of alleles in the gene pool)

Gene pool large (bottom of bottle) -> then it gets smaller (bottleneck)

Front 493

Founder affect (a type of genetic drift)

Back 493

a few individuals migrate away from the main population to form a new population

similar to the bottleneck effect in that it decreases biodiversity substantially

Front 494

Nonrandom mating (a type of genetic drift)

Back 494

in many populations, mating is random

coloring preferences, limited mobility, and other restrictions on physical access are just a few of the factors that influence which members of a population will mate

Front 495

Nonrandom mating (larger populations)

Back 495

the effects of nonrandom mating are minor

Front 496

Nonrandom mating (smaller populations)

Back 496

the effects of nonrandom mating are greater and the results in the predominance of a few preferred alleles

Front 497

Macroevoltuion

Back 497

new species are created or die out

operates on a species level rather than a population level

Front 498

Allopatric speciation

Back 498

when two groups of the same species are separated by distance

Each species undergoes evolutions -> eventually two population = so different that they cannot reproduce

Front 499

Reproductive Isolation

Back 499

Two populations evolve such that they are incapable of reproducing

Front 500

Sympatric Speciation

Back 500

When different species arise from a single species

Occurs because of chromosomal changes in the population or when nonrandom mating occurs

Front 501

Extinction

Back 501

species cannot adapt quickly enough to environmental change and all members of the species die

Front 502

Community

Back 502

Populations of different species interacting with one another

Front 503

Niche

Back 503

Species habitat

Their use of resources within the environment (abiotic/biotic)

Their role in the system

Front 504

Competition

Back 504

individuals compete for resources in the environment

Front 505

Intraspecific Competition

Back 505

Two individuals in the same species compete

Front 506

Interspecific Competition

Back 506

Two individuals in different species compete

Front 507

Competitve Exclusion

Back 507

No two species can occupy the same niche at the same time (gause's principle)

The two species compete and the one that is more fit wins while the other must relocate or die out

Front 508

Realized Niche

Back 508

the species that loses in competition has to find a new niche

this is what it's called!

Front 509

Gause's Principle

Back 509

no two species can occupy the same niche at the same time

Front 510

fundamental niche

Back 510

the niche that the winning species in competitive exclusion has

this is the opposite of the realized niche

Front 511

Plant competition

Back 511

They compete for sunlight and space

- spread their offspring far away so they don't have to compete with them

- secrete chemicals that inhibit other plant's growth

Front 512

Predation

Back 512

one species feeds on another -> this is the driving force for changes in population size

this is another type of interspecies interaction

Front 513

Predation w/ plants

Back 513

predation can occur when a primary consumer feeds on plants

Front 514

Symbiotic relationships

Back 514

close, prolonged associations between two or more different organisms of different species that may, but don't always, benefit each member

Front 515

Mutualism (symbiotic)

Back 515

both species benefit

Ex. Sea anenome and clow fish

Sea anenome's stinging cells protect the clownfish

Clownfish wards off some of the anenome's predators

Front 516

Commensalism (symbiotic)

Back 516

one organism benfits; the other is not affected

ex: barnacles on a whale

barnacles find an environment where they can recieve lots of nutrients and protection

whales are not affected

Front 517

Parasitism (symbiotic)

Back 517

One benefits, one's harmed

fleas on a dog; tick in humans

Front 518

keystone species

Back 518

maintains the balance of in a community

may not always be the most obvious species, species whose very presence contributes to an ecosystem's diversity and whose extinction would consequently lead to the extinction of other forms of life

Front 519

Indigenous species

Back 519

live and occur naturally in an environment

Front 520

Introduced species

Back 520

interferes w/ organisms

red ants in the southern America; grey squirrels in england

Front 521

Invasive species

Back 521

Zebra mussels (introduced to the great lakes by ships)

Front 522

Primary Succession

Back 522

If ecological succession begins in a virtually lifeless area it is called this

Front 523

Secondary Succession

Back 523

ecological succession that takes place where an existing community has been cleared but the soil has been left intact

may have been cleared by fire, human impact, or tornado

Front 524

Ecological Succession

Back 524

some of the changes that take place in a geographic area over time

Front 525

Pioneer species

Back 525

The first species that colonize during succession

pioneer species typically have a wider range of tolerance (insects)

Front 526

Climax Community

Back 526

the final stage of succession in which there is a dynamic balance between abiotic and biotic components of the community

Front 527

Succession (in steps)

Back 527

1) lichens (pioneer species) -> erode rock surfaces into soil -> make the land more habitable

2) organisms settle in. Lichens outcompeted by mosses, ferns, (annual plants)

3) low shrubs

4) conifers (perrenials)

5) short-lived hardwood trees (dogwood and red maples)

6) long-life hardwood trees (oak)

Front 528

Habitat Fragmentation

Back 528

When the size of an organism's natural habitat is reduced or when the habitat is isolated due to development

Front 529

Ecotones

Back 529

Wide Overlapping boundaries between ecosystems

There is larger diversity/density at the boundaries than there is within the heart of the ecosystem

Front 530

Edge Effect

Back 530

At the ecotones, there is larger species diversity and larger abundance than at the heart of the exosystem

Front 531

Resource Partitioning

Back 531

Organisms use different resources in the same habitat as a way to avoid competition

Front 532

Indicator Species

Back 532

Species whose decline indicates damage to the habitat

Ex. Gray Jay that lives in the American south. The Gray Jay's food supply has been lowered due to global warming -> Gray Jay is indicating a problem

Front 533

Specialist Species

Back 533

Narrow and specific niche; can only live in a certain habitat

Front 534

Inertia

Back 534

The tendency of an ecosystem to maintain its overall structure

Front 535

Disturbance

Back 535

Something that will instigate the process of succession

Front 536

Population density

Back 536

The number of living organisms per unit area

Front 537

Population dispersion

Back 537

How individuals are spaced within a region

Front 538

Random Dispersion

Back 538

relativly uncommon

position of each individual is not determined or influenced by the other members of the population

Front 539

Clumping dispersion

Back 539

Most common

Individuals flock together for protection

One particular region may be rich in all the things an organism needs for life

Front 540

Uniform dispersion

Back 540

Members of a population are uniformly spaced thorughout the geographic region

Trees are spaced evenly in a forest so that each receives adequate light and water

Result of competition!!!

Front 541

biotic potential

Back 541

the amount a population would grow if there were unlimited resources in an environment

Front 542

Carrying Capacity

Back 542

The (K) of a specific region is definied as the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources in the region

bacteria require fewer resources to live than zebra. Thus the K is higher for bacteria than zebra

Front 543

J-curve (exponential)

Back 543

the shape of the growth of a population if there was unlimited food and no limiting factors

Front 544

S-curve (K included)

This is LOGISTIC population growth (think of a ln graph)

Back 544

much more realistic

carrying capacity is in there. Shows an initial burst in population and the subsequent flattening of it as the growth rate drops and the curve ultimately resembles a flattened S

Front 545

r-selected organims

Back 545

reproduce early in life and often

they have a high capacity for reproductive growth

little/no care is given to the offspring

examples= bacteria, algae, insects

Front 546

K-selected organisms

Back 546

reproduce later in life; produce fewer offspring; devote time/energy to caring for offspring

they need to preserve as many as possible because they only have a few babies.

ex. humans, lions, cows

Front 547

Boom-and-Bust Cycle

Back 547

common among r-strategists

rapid increase in population and then an equally rapid drop off.

When conditions are good for growth (good temp/good nutrient availability) the population soars

When conditions worsen, the population fails indefinitely

Front 548

Predator-Prey Cycle

Back 548

(rabbit/cayote example: year of rainfall means lots of rabbitts, and lots of food for cayotes -> more cayotes.... less rainfall = less rabbits= less cayote food = less cayotes)

The population cycle of the predator does not cahnge at exactly the same time as the rabbit pop.

Cayote rises after the rabbit's population does. (rabbits have to build to high levels before cayotes have enough to eat)

Front 549

Predator-Prey Cycle (in regards to Endagered Species)

Back 549

If humans destroy environment, this means the environment for small organisms are destroyed -> means they reproduce less -> means less food for upper trophic levels -> means the cayotes die :(

Front 550

Density-dependent factors

(depend on the size of the population)

Back 550

- increased predation (more predators are attracted to the increased food source)

- competition for food or living space

- disease (spreads more rapidly in populations that are overcrowded)

- buildup of toxic materials

Front 551

Density-Independent factors

Back 551

will change the population's size regardless of how many individuals

- fires, earthquakes, hurricanes, catastrophic events

Front 552

Number of people in the world

Back 552

6.5 billion

Front 553

Is the rate of population still increasing in the US? In other countries?

Back 553

No, it is actually decreasing in many places, but the population is still rising

Front 554

Which country(ies) have the most people

Back 554

#1 China
#2 India

India will soon surpass China though

Front 555

Actual Growth Rate

(formula calculation!!!)

Back 555

(birth rate - death rate)/10

Front 556

Crude Birth Rate

Back 556

number of live births per 1000 members of the population

Front 557

Crude Death Rate

Back 557

number of death per 1000 members of a population per year

Front 558

emigration

Back 558

movement of people out of a population

Front 559

immigration

Back 559

movement of people into a population

Front 560

Total Fertility Rate

Back 560

used to describe the number of children a woman will bear during her lifetime

Front 561

replacement birthrate

Back 561

number of children a couple must have in order to replace themselves in a population

(in some developing countries this can be 2.5!!)

Front 562

How long have human populations been growing exponentially?

Back 562

more than 3 centuries

Front 563

Factors that affect birthrates

Back 563

1) availability of birth control

2) demand for children in the workforce

3) base level education for women

4) existence of public/private retirement systems

5) population's religion/culture

Front 564

Why are human populations growing?

Back 564

From decreased death rates!!! (not increased birthrates)

- industrial revolution improved quality of life
- medicine makes people live longer
- fimprovements in sanitation
- better healthcare
- dependable food supplies

Front 565

Demographic transition model

Back 565

used to predict population trends based on birth and death rates of a population.

In this model, a population can experience zero population growth in two ways: high birthrates, high death rates

or low birthrates, low deathrates

Front 566

First State Demographic transition

Back 566

when birthrates and deathrates are high

(still makes zero population growth)

Front 567

Second State Demographic

Back 567

Low birthrates, low deathrates

(still makes zero population growth

Front 568

Demographic transition

Back 568

population shift from HIGH birth/death rates to LOW birthrates/deathrates

4 states exist in this model:

1) pre-industrial state
2) transitional state
3) industrial state
4) postindustrial state

Front 569

Pre-industrial State

Back 569

the population exhibits a slow rate of growth and has a high birth rate and a high death rate...

all due to harsh living conditions

Front 570

Transitional State

Back 570

Birthrates are HIGH
Deathrates are LOW (due to better food, water and healthcare)

This allows for rapid population growth

Front 571

Industrial State

Back 571

Population growth slows

Birthrate drops (becomes similar to death rate)

Many developing countries are in the industrial state

Front 572

Postindustrial State

Back 572

Population approaches/reaches ZPG

populations may drop below ZPG (Russia, Japan, South Africa)

Front 573

Factors that have contributed to the increase in the world human population

Back 573

1) availability of clean water
2) sanitary waste disposal
3) better medical care
4) increase in food production

Front 574

Macronutrients

Back 574

Needed in large amounts

proteins, carbohydrates, fats

Front 575

Micronutients

Back 575

These are needed in smaller amounts

vitamins, iron, calcium

Front 576

hunger

Back 576

poor nutrition that results from an insufficient or poorly balanced diet

840 million people are hungry

30% of USA population is considered obese

some countries can't produce enough food and there is a trade imbalance between countries with food and countries without

Front 577

Malnutrition

Back 577

Poor nutrition that comes from a nonbalanced diet

These diets lack essential vitamins and other components

Front 578

Undernourished

Back 578

have not been provided with a sufficient quantity of food!!

(less than 3,500 calories)

Our Earth produces enough food, there is just unequal distribution because not everyone can afford to pay for the food

China is working actively to combat these problems

Front 579

How do developing nations solve food problems

Back 579

the only nolution is to enable communities to become self-sufficient

Front 580

World Trade Organization (WTO)

Back 580

controls the policies of international trade

stronger nations have more influence than smaller ones

Front 581

Describe the number of people going to urban places in a word + facts

Back 581

"growing"

75% of the US population lives in a city
50% of the world population lives in an urban area

Aging population moves to cities because of cultural activities, jobs, and healthcare

Front 582

Suburbs

Back 582

Satellite communities of cities

People can afford to live here because gas is cheap and they can drive cars to cities

People have their own space and don't have to share it!

People here occupy 11x more space than people in cities

Front 583

Urban Sprawl

Back 583

The emigration of people FROM a city to the suburbs

Front 584

Urban areas

Back 584

People are closer and more concentrated

more people means more water use -> crowdrd areas means water shortages have led to the implementation of restrictions on water uses

A lot of waste in cities

Front 585

Alternative modes of transport

Back 585

1) mass transit (subways and buses
2) car pulling
3) bikes
motor scooters
4) subways

Front 586

Benefits of alternative transport

Back 586

1) less congestion on roads
2) less pollution put off into the environment

Front 587

Sustainable Cities

Back 587

Boulder, Colorado = green policies

- have bike paths all over city
- provides parking areas for those who carpool
- strong recycling program reduces amount of stuff in landfills
- open green spaces for recreation
- providing education
- making a city self sufficient

Front 588

Ecological Footprint

Back 588

the environmental impact of a population

amount of Earth's surface that a population needs to use to maintain its needs and dispose of its waste

America's = 9.7 per capita

Front 589

Threatened

Back 589

number of individuals of a species is quite low

in danger of being endangered

Front 590

Endangered

Back 590

The species is in imminent danger of going extinct

Front 591

Background Extinction Rate

Back 591

The natural rate of extinction

Front 592

Endangered Species Traits

Back 592

1) K-selected species usually (low reproductive rates)

2) higher levels in the food chain (low population numbers)

3) Specialized feeding habitats

4) need large ranges of habitat to survive

Front 593

Habitat Fragmentation

Back 593

When habitats are broken into smaller pieces due to human development

Destroys populations

Front 594

Habitat Degredation

Back 594

1) adding pollutants to the environment

2) contruction/development

Front 595

How to lower habitat destruction

Back 595

1) set up national parks where development is not allowed

2) live sustainibly, stop polluting!

3) breed animals until their populations get high enough to go back into the wild

Front 596

Marine Mammals Protection Act

Back 596

Protects marine mammals from falling below their optimum sustainable population levels

Front 597

Endanges Species Act Program for the protection of threatened plants and animals and their habitats

Back 597

Prohibts the commerce of those species considered to be endangered or threatened

Front 598

CITES

Back 598

bans the hunting, capturing, and selling of endangered and threatened speicies

Front 599

resource

Back 599

an available supply that can be drawn on as needed

have prices put on them

Front 600

Conservation

Back 600

The management/regulation of a resource so that its use does not exceed the capacity of the resource to regenerate itself

Front 601

Preservation

Back 601

maintaining a species/ecosystem in order to ensure their perpetuation

No concern of monetary value

Front 602

Natural Resources

Back 602

Abiotic

Front 603

Ecosystem Capital

Back 603

Putting an economic value on something

Nautral resources are described in terms of their value

Front 604

Renewable Resources

Back 604

Resources that can be regenerated quickly

(biomass - plants and animals)

Front 605

Nonrenewable Resources

Back 605

Cannot be regenerated quickly

(minerals, fossil fuels, soil)

Front 606

Consumption

Back 606

day-to-day use of environmental resources like food, clothing, and housing

Front 607

Production

Back 607

the use of the environmental resources for profit

Front 608

Where does food come from?

Back 608

77% = croplands

16% = grazing lands

7% = ocean resources

Front 609

Rises in industrial production

Back 609

1) machinery to help with agriculture

2) fertilizers

3) pesticides

4) new, more resistant crop strains

Front 610

Negative Impacts of increased agriculture

Back 610

1) decreased biodiversity

2) increased erosion

Front 611

Traditional Subsistence Agriculture

Back 611

Provides only enough food for the family's survival

Labor done by the family and by animals

Still practices by 42% of the world's population (namely developing nations)

Front 612

Slash and Burn

Back 612

Traditional Agricultural method still practicd in developing countries

1) vegetation cut down and burned before being planted with crops

2) people leave after a few years because soils in developing nations are poor

3) they find a new location to clear

Front 613

Green Revolution

Back 613

farming became mechanized and crop yields in industrial nations boomed

founded by Norman Borlaug (who dedicated his life to wheat improvement)

Front 614

Green Movement

Back 614

Conservation!

Front 615

Norman Borlaug

Back 615

His work improves strains of wheat

more wheat produced per unit acre -> means less land must be used for cultivation = more biodiversity

Front 616

Inorganic Chemical Fertilizers

Back 616

brough huge increases in farm production suring the Green Revolution

without them, world agricultural production would drop 40%

Front 617

chemical fertilizers (cons)

Back 617

- reduction of organic matter and oxygen in the soil

- fertilizers = lots of energy to produce, transport, and supply

- leach into watersheds and cause negative effects

Front 618

How long can pesticides be used before its target insect evolves to become immune to its effects?

Back 618

5-10 years

Front 619

FIFRA

Back 619

the EPA must approve the use of all pesticides in the united states

Front 620

Irrigation

Back 620

Increasd the agricultural yields

repeated irrigation can cause significant buildup of salts on the soi's surface that make the land unusable for crops

Front 621

Salinization

Back 621

the buildup of salt on the soils surface rendering soil unusable

causes water table of the region to rise

to combat this, farmers use lots of water, but this can destroy plant roots (by waterlogging)

Front 622

Golden Rice

Back 622

Genetically engineered crop that contains vitamin A and iron

introduction of this rice helps 2 things in developing countries: Vitamin A deficiency (leads to blindness) and iron deficiency (anemia)

Front 623

Monoculture

Back 623

14 plants and 8 animal species provide 90% of the world's caloric intake

Loss in biodiversity

Just one plant is put in a large area

Front 624

Rice, Wheat, Corn

Back 624

provide more than half of the world's total calories

increase in yield is due to genetic engineering

Front 625

Soil Conservation Act

Back 625

Brought up after the Dust Bowl in 1935

Front 626

Terracing

Back 626

- prevents soil erosion

- makes a flat surface for the plants to grow on

- flat surfaces are cut into hillsides

Front 627

Contour Plowing

Back 627

- rows of crops are plowed across the hillside

- prevents the erosion that can occur when rows are cut up and down on a slope

Front 628

No-Till Methods

Back 628

farmers plant seeds without using a plow to turn the soil

Front 629

Plowing (Tilling)

Back 629

soil loses carbon when it is plowed

when it is plowed, CO2 gets released into the atmosphere

Front 630

Crop Rotation

Back 630

provides the soils with nutrients when legumes are part of the cycle

Front 631

Intercropping/Strip cropping

Back 631

planting bands of different crops across a hillside

prevents erosion by created an extensive root system

Plant roots hold soil in place to prevent erosion

Front 632

Overgrazing

Back 632

if the grass is consumed at a rate faster than it can grow

Leads to erosion and soil compaction

Front 633

Grazing animals consume how much of the total grain crop in the US?

Back 633

70%

Front 634

What % of the original American forests are left

Back 634

5%

Front 635

How does the number of trees growing now compare to the number of trees that grew 100 years ago

Back 635

Their numbers are the same

Front 636

Deforestation

Back 636

The removal of trees for agricultural purposes, purposes of exportation

mostly in developing countries (little deforestation in industrilalized countries)

mostly for development in the USA

Habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, erosion, depletion of nutrients in the soil

Front 637

Old growth forests

Back 637

never been hurt

lots of biodiversity

many niches for organisms

Front 638

Second Growth Forest

Back 638

Cutting has occured

New, younger trees have growth here

Front 639

plantations/tree farms

Back 639

unnatural forests

same age, commercial use, less biodiversity

Front 640

Silviculture

Back 640

the management of forest plantations for the purpose of harvesting timber

done in two ways:

1) clear cutting
2) selective cutting

Front 641

Clear-Cutting

Back 641

Removal of all the trees in an area

Typically done in areas that support fast growing trees (pines)

Front 642

Selective Cutting

Back 642

Uneven-aged management, shelter-wood cutting

Front 643

Agroforestry

Back 643

mutulistic relationship

trees and crops are planted together

trees create habitats for animals that prey pon pests that harm crops

roots stabilize and enrich soil

Front 644

Surface Fire

Back 644

Burn underbrush

protect trees from more harmful fires by removing underbrush and dead materials

Front 645

Crown Fires

Back 645

Start on the ground/in canopies

have not experienced recent surface fires

Spread quickly, high temps -> consume underbrush and dead material on the forest floor

Front 646

Ground Fires

Back 646

Bogs and swamps

Difficult to detect and extinguish

Front 647

By catch

Back 647

when organisms that are not the target fish are caught

results from driftnets, longnets, and bottom trawling

Front 648

Driftnets

Back 648

Dragged through the water and indiscriminately catch everything in its path

Front 649

Long lining

Back 649

many baited hooks

many organisms eat the food and get caught (by catch)

turtles and shark populations are depleted

Front 650

Bottom Trawling

Back 650

Ocean floor is scraped by heavy nets

everything in its path is destroyed including seamounts (underwater mountains)

Front 651

How much of the fish stock has been exploited?

Back 651

50%

20% overexploited

10% depleted

Front 652

Aquaculture

Back 652

Solution to the problem of overfishing

only raises the organisms w/ highest economic value (salmon, shrimp)

Can introduce disease to the native gene pool of organisms

Aquaculture fish are captured and fed wild fish (which ruins trying to use less fish)

Front 653

Marine Mammal Protection Act

Back 653

Established a federal responsibilty to conserve marine mammals

Front 654

Coral Reefs

Back 654

Cnidarians and Zooxanthellae create Coral Reefs

Front 655

Mangrove Swamps

Back 655

Another threatened aquatic species

These swamps hold lots of biodiversity

Are falling due to aquaculture

Front 656

Metallic Minerals

Back 656

mined for their metals

extracted through smelting and many purposes

Front 657

Nonmetallic Minerals

Back 657

used in their natural state

Nothing is extracted from them

Front 658

Mineral Deposit

Back 658

An area in which a particular mineral is concentrated

Front 659

Ore

Back 659

rock or mineral from which a valuble substance can be extracted at a profit

Front 660

Mining process effect on land

Back 660

revolves around the damage that is done during the extraction process

Disrupts ecosystems and scars the land

Leaves pollutants (produces sulfuric acid)

responsible for much of the pollution today (because of the burning of fossil fuels that it takes to mine and process ore)

Front 661

Refining Ore

Back 661

this process of refining the ore leaves pollutants in both the air and water

takes extensive energy input

Front 662

Gangue

Back 662

The waste product of mining

Front 663

Tailings

Back 663

the piles of gangue (waste product)

Front 664

RCRA

Back 664

Regulated some mineral processing wastes

Front 665

Cost-benefit analysis

Back 665

when you weigh the costs of an action against its benefits

Front 666

Marginal Costs

Back 666

The additional costs

Front 667

Marginal Benefits

Back 667

The additional benefits

Front 668

externalities

Back 668

as we use resources, there are unwanted or unanticipated consequences that arise from our using a resource

Can be positive when the result is good for the environment

Can be negative when the result is bad for the environment

Front 669

Economics (cost-benefit, marginal costs/benefits, externalities)

Back 669

These are all NEUTRAL

analyze objectively

Front 670

Sulfuric Acid

Back 670

Mostly found in mine drainage

Front 671

Kinetic Energy

Back 671

Energy in motion

Front 672

Potential Energy

Back 672

Energy at rest

Front 673

Radiant Energy

Back 673

sunlight

Front 674

convection

Back 674

transfer of heat by the mvmt of heated matter

Front 675

conduction

Back 675

the transfer of energy through matter from particle to particle

Front 676

What is one of the biggest uses of energy?

Back 676

Production of electricity

we use tons of energy to produce electricity

Front 677

Generalized Picture of the Production of electricity

Back 677

1) energy source provides power to heat up water -> makes water steam

2) steam turns turbines (kinetic energy -> mechanical energy)

3) Stator rotates over the rotor causing magnets to pass over the wire coils generating flow of electrons through a copper wire

Front 678

Fossil Fuels supply how much of the world's electricity?

Back 678

64%

Front 679

Nuclear Energy Provides what % of the world's electricity

Back 679

17%

Front 680

Renewable Energy Sources provide how much of the world's electricity?

Back 680

19% of the world's

Front 681

Main fossil fuels in the industrial revolution

Back 681

firewood and coal

Front 682

Main fossil fuel today

Back 682

oil (35% of the total global energy)

Front 683

Fossil Fuels

Back 683

made up of the fossilized remains of once living organisms

(pressurized and intense heat make them fossil fuels)

Front 684

Natural Gas

Back 684

Made of methane gas

Front 685

Seams

Back 685

these are long continuous deposits of coal at various depths underground

Front 686

Exploratory Wells

Back 686

Probe and sample a specific to see if there are any fossil fuels

can provide an estimate of the fuel that's in that area

Front 687

Proven wells

Back 687

a site where there is proven to be fossil fuels (by means of exploratory reserves)

Front 688

Crude Oil

Back 688

When oil is pumped from a fresh reserve

Front 689

Shale oil/Tar sands

Back 689

also have oil reserves

Front 690

Methods of extracting oil

Back 690

1) gusher - pressure of the oil makes oil spurt out of site

2) pressure extraction - (mud, saltwater) to push oil oil

3) steam, hot water, hot gases partially melt thick crude oil and make it easier to extract

Front 691

Types of coal (from purest to least pure)

Back 691

antracite -> bituminous -> subbituminous -> lignite

Front 692

Strip mining

Back 692

removal of earth's surface to the level of the coal seam

overburden is replaced after

Front 693

Underground mining

Back 693

networks/tunnels are blasted

humans go in to manually retrieve coal

Front 694

Over burden

Back 694

produced in surface mining -> is replaced afer

Front 695

Scrubbers

Back 695

Used to clean coal

this eliminates a lot of the soil let off

Front 696

Fly Ash/Boiler Residue

Back 696

Waste products from the burning of coal

Front 697

Burning coal with limestone

Back 697

sulfur combines w/ calcium in limestone to create calcium sulfate (doesn't go into atmosphere)

Front 698

Natural Gas

Back 698

Made mostly of methane

methane can be produced by anaerobic bacteria

produces CO2 and water when it burns (less output than other fossil fuels). This is because of its simple molecular structure

can cause violent explosions and can leak into the atmosphere

Front 699

Nuclear power

Back 699

completely clean!

Front 700

Chernobyl Factor in Russia

Back 700

explosion of a nuclear reactor

Front 701

Safety Issues w/ nuclear power

Back 701

- Highly explosive
- the biproducts can be used to synthesize nuclear weapons
- safety/radioactive elements
- can only be used for a few years

Front 702

Nuclear Waste

Back 702

Stored in the Yucca Mountains

nuclear waste = hard to dispose of

Front 703

Hydroelectric Power

Back 703

Results in silting (removed by dredging)

Front 704

Active Collection (solar energy)

Back 704

the use of devices like (solar panels) to collect, focus, transport, and store solar energy

Front 705

photovoltaic cells

Back 705

their production requires the use of fossil fuels

Front 706

Nacelle

Back 706

the base of a windmill

Front 707

Wind Energy

Back 707

the fastest growing alternative energy source

usually placed in wind farms/parks

initially more expensive than fossil fuels -> they are expensive to build

Front 708

Geothermal energy

Back 708

naturally heated water from the earth's interior turn turbines creating electricity

is renewable if used correctly

water from interior can be pumped through homes to heat them

Front 709

Hyrdogen cells

Back 709

the safest, cleanest, form of energy

uses hydrogen atoms from water to synthesize energy (electrolysis)

only waste is water vapor

These have high costs

hydrogen can be taken from organisms, but this causes release of fossil fuels

Front 710

Toxin

Back 710

any substance inhaled, ingested or absorbed that does significant damage

Front 711

LD50

Back 711

the dosage of toxin it takes to kill 50% of the test animals

Front 712

ED50

Back 712

the dose at which individuals show a negative effect from the toxin

Front 713

Threshold Dose

Back 713

the dosage at which a negative effect occurs

Front 714

infection

Back 714

the result of a pathogen entering the body

Front 715

disease

Back 715

occurs when the infection causes a change in the state of health

Front 716

pathogens

Back 716

bacteria that cause disease

Front 717

Point Source pollution

Back 717

specific location from which pollution is released

factory or a site where wood is being burned

Front 718

Non=point source

Back 718

could come from another source

Front 719

Criteria Pollutants

Back 719

CO (carbon monoxide)
Pb (lead)
Ozone (O3)
Nitrogen Dioxide (N2)
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)
Particulates

Front 720

Carbon Monoxide

Back 720

Binds irreversibly to hemoglobin the blood -> causes humans to die

hemoglobin has more of an affinity for CO than for Oxygen ... so CO has a better chance of binding

Front 721

Particulate

Back 721

Small solid particle that can be suspended in the air

Front 722

Lead

Back 722

causes nervous system disorders and mental retardation

Front 723

Tropospheric ozone

Back 723

secondary pollutant

formed by Nitrogen Oxide, Heat, Sunlight, and VOCs

Front 724

Nitrogen dioxide

Back 724

formed when atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen react when exposed to high temperatures

occurs in combustion of engines

Front 725

Sulfur dioxide

Back 725

Powerful irritant

Front 726

CFCs

Back 726

create ozone

used in aerosols, fire extinguishers, and as refrigerants.

They migrate to the stratosphere. UV rays break them up into ClO and ozone into 02 and

Front 727

When is the loss of ozone the greatest?

Back 727

In the spring as the chlorine breaks down ozone into O@

Chlorine acts as a catalyse

Front 728

When is production of ozone the greatest

Back 728

summer when UV rays catalize the reaction again

Front 729

Where are the holes in the ozone layer located?

Back 729

Most seriously over antarctica where UV rays are the strongest

Front 730

Catalytic Converters

Back 730

control car emissions

changes CO and VOCs to CO2

Front 731

Electric Cars

Back 731

limited power ranges

lacked the amenities of a normal car (AC)

Front 732

Why indoor pollution is such a big deal

Back 732

1) Number of hours people spend indoors

2) People in developing countries use waste or wood to cook food -> the waste products of this burning is not acceptable at high levels

Front 733

VOCs

Back 733

the most abundant indoor air pollutant (found in carpet and everywhere)

Front 734

Two of the most bad indoor pollutants in developing countries are

Back 734

radon (can give rise to lung cancer - emitted by uranium as it undergoes radioactive decay

tabacco smoke (second hand smoke can give rise to lung cancer)

Front 735

Bacteria and things

Back 735

are indoor pollutants

they can cause asthma attacks!

Front 736

Thermal pollution (how to fix it)

Back 736

1) make buildings out of more reflective materials

2) plants trees on roofs - shades buildings and transpiration of plants provides a cooling effect

3) Green Spaces reduce runoff by trapping the water and distributing it more evenly across a larger surface area

Front 737

Thermal Pollution

Back 737

the water in cities is affected by runoff

the asphalt makes it collect in pools -> it's harder for evaporation to occur in these pools of water than when evaporation is spread out over a large quantity of land

Front 738

Convergent boundary

Back 738

->|<-

The two plates are coming together.

One of these plates is pushed towards to mantle

Front 739

Plate boundaries

Back 739

the places where two plates meet

this is where events such as sea floor spreading and most volcanoes/earthquakes occur

Front 740

Divergent boundary

Back 740

<-|->

Two plates move away from one another

Front 741

Divergent boundary gap

Back 741

The gap between the divergent boundary is filled with magma and when it cools, new crust it formed

Front 742

Transform fault boundary

Back 742

two plates slide from side to side relative to each other

Front 743

Subduction

Note: Subduction can only occur when an ocean plate is involved in the convergence

Back 743

Results when theres an ocean-ocean plate converging and a ocean-continental plate converging

The heavy ocean plate is pushed below and it melts as it enters the mantle

Front 744

Active Volcanoes

Back 744

Are erupting or have erupted within recent history

Front 745

Dormant Volcanoes

Back 745

Have not been known to erupt

Front 746

Extinct Volcanoes

Back 746

Won't erupt again

Front 747

Rift Volcanoes

Back 747

(active)

when plate move away from each other
New ocean floor is made by magma in the volcano

Front 748

Hotspot Volcanoe

Back 748

don't form at the margin of plates

these are found over areas where magma has been known to arise

Front 749

Subduction Volcanoes

Back 749

Where plates collide and slide over each other

Front 750

Earthquakes

Back 750

the result of vibrations deep in the Earth that release energy

Often occur at transform boundaries

Front 751

Focus of Earthquakes

Back 751

Begins within the earth

Front 752

Epicenter

Back 752

is at the locus on the surface

Front 753

Tsunamis

Back 753

Giant waves generated by Earthquakes

Front 754

Rock Cycle

Back 754

The cycling of rocks. three stages include

1) sedimentary rock

2) metamorphic rock

3) igneous rock

Front 755

sedimentary rock

Back 755

formed as sediment builds up

can occur at a subduction zone (oceans sediments pushed on earth and compression

example of sedimentary = limestone

Front 756

Metamorphic Rock

Back 756

undergoes pressure and heat is applied to the rock

slate

Front 757

Igneous Rock

Back 757

occurs when rock is melted then cooled

Solid lava is igneous rock

BaSALt

Front 758

Igneous Rock -> Metamorphic Rock

Back 758

Igneous Rocks can become metamorphic if they undergo proper pressure

Front 759

O horizon

Back 759

uppermost layer of the soil

Made of organic material - organic wastes - dead bodies

Front 760

humus

Back 760

dead organic material that turns rumbly

Front 761

Salinization

Back 761

due to irrigation the soil gets dried out and salt accumulates in the soil

Front 762

Drip irrigation

Back 762

only gives an area the amount of water that is necessary

Front 763

Soil Conservation

Back 763

1) low till/no till

2) plant trees/more plants -> roots hold soil together

3) contour farming

Front 764

Greenhouse Effect

Back 764

Solar radiation absorbed by earth/some reflected

Earth lets off infared radiation and some of this is reabsorbed at emited by greenhosue gases

Front 765

Mesosphere

Back 765

where meteors build up

Front 766

Thermosphere

Back 766

Receives most photons from the sun

Front 767

Doldrums

Back 767

Their air is constantly rising and not blowing (5 north and 5 south of the equator).

These are very stormy regions

Front 768

Monsoons

Back 768

caused by the fact that land heats and cools more quickly than water does

Front 769

Littoral Zone

Back 769

Begins w/ very shallow water at the shoreline

Plants and animals that reside here have lots of sunlight

Front 770

Limnetic Zone

Back 770

Surface of open water

Region extends to the dept that sunlight can penetrate

Organisms here are short lived are require photosynthesis