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217 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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in dogs and cats, where does the heart lie.
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at a level between the 3rd and 7th ribs in the intrapleural space
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in horses and ruminants, where does the heart lie
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at a level between the 2nd and 6th ribs in the intrapleural space
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mediastinum
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also known as the intrapleural space, it is the space between the pleural covering of the right lung and the pleural covering of the left lung
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pericardium
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the outer layer of the heart
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the pericardium consists of what 2 layers
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an outer "fibrous pericardium" and am inner "serous pericardium"
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what 2 layers make up the serous pericardium
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the inner visceral layer "epicardium" and the outer parietal layer
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visceral
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pertaining to the soft internal organs
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parietal
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pertaining to the wall of an organ or a cavity
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systole
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cardiac contraction, the heart muscles contract and blood is ejected from the atria to the ventricles, to the arteries
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auricles
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largest and most visible parts of the atria.
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interventricular sulci
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the groove of fat and blood vessels that separate the ventricles of the heart
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ductus arteriosus
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the bypass opening between the pulmonary artery and aorta in a fetus
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interventricular septum
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the tissue that separates the right and left ventricles
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explain the flow of deoxygenated blood through the heart to be oxygenated
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Deoxygenated blood flows through the vena cava, into the right atrium. From the right atrium it goes through the tricuspid valve. From the tricuspid valve it flows into the right ventricle, which in turn puts it through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. From the pulmonary artery blood flows through vessels to the pulmonary capillaries of the alveoli, where the oxygen exchange happens. From the pulmonary capillaries oxygenated blood travel through vessels that merge into becoming the pulmonary veins that bring the blood into the left atrium. From the left atrium the blood goes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. From there the blood travels through the aortic valve to the aorta, and from the aorta into the rest of the body.
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what is the purpose of the tricuspid, pulmonary, and mitral valve
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to prevent backwards flow of blood
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How many flaps do the tricuspid, mitral, and aorta valve have
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The tricuspid has three,mitral has two, and the aorta has 3
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Which ventricle wall is thicker
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The left
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diastole
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when the heart relaxes and refills with blood to be ejected during the next systolic contraction
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what are the 2 main parts of cardiac contraction
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systole and diastole
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sinoatrial node (SA node)
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it gives the impulse for a heartbeat, it is the pacemaker of the heart. iys located in the right atrium
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what causes the heart muscle to contract
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depolarization of the cells, which in turn generates an electrical current
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Describe the place of the base and the apex of the heart
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The base is the top of the heart, is the bottom of the heart closest to the left ventricle. in an animal, the base is cranial and the apex is caudal
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describe the fastest way the heart contracts
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The impulse generated by the SA node travels quickly down fast conducting muscle fibers to the AV node. There is a slight delay in the AV node that permits the atria to complete their systolic contraction before the ventricular systole begins. After the delay at the AV node, the electrical impulses resume through specialized fibers in the ventricles called the bundle of His and the purkinje fibers. The bundle of His fibers run down the interventricular septum to the bottom of the left and right ventricles, and the purkinje fibers carry the impulses from the bundle of his fibers up to the ventricular myocardium
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describe the cardiac cycle
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A)The SA node depolarizes, both atria and ventricles relax
B) atria contract (atrial systole), opening up the tricuspid and mitral valves. C) ventricles contract as atrias relax with tricuspid and mitral valves closed, opening the artery and aorta valves. D) beginning diastole, artery and aorta valves closed, tricuspid and mitral valves open, relaxing ventricles pull blood in from relaxed atria. |
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what is the major distinction between a fetus and a newborn
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The newborn received oxygen through its own lungs. The fetus receive oxygen from the blood of the mother through the placenta
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ductus venosus
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the liver bypass of a fetus
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foramen ovale
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the bypass between the left and right atria in a fetus
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describe the blood circulation in the fetus
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The oxygenated blood from the placenta flows into the fetus through the umbilical vein. The blood from the umbilical vein flow through the liver and the ductus venosus into the caudal vena cava where it mixes with deoxygenated blood from the fetal systemic circulation. From the vena cava the blood flows into the right atrium which goes through the foramen ovale between the right and left atria, directly into the left atrium. The blood then goes into the pulmonary artery where blood flow May go into the lungs, or through the ductus arteriosus, directly into the aorta. From the aorta blood flow through the fetal systemic circulation where it supplies oxygen and collects waste products from the tissues and then back to the placenta to be reoxygenated
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auscultation
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listening to the heart
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What is the usual cardiac rhythm described as
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lub dub. lub is called S1 and dub S2
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what is the happening when you hear "lub" S1
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The simultaneous closure of the tricuspid and mitral valves at the beginning of ventricular systole
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What side of the chest are the tricuspid and mitral valve heard the best
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The tricuspid valve is heard best on the right, and the mitral valve is heard best on the left
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what is the happening when you hear "dub" S2
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The closure of the aortic and pulmonic valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole
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What sides of the chest are the aortic and pulmonic valves heard best
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both on the left side
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cardiac output
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The amount of blood leaves the heart
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What 2 factors determine cardiac output
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Stroke volume and heart rate
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stroke volume
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The amount of blood ejected with each cardiac contraction
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heart rate
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How often heart contracts
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What is the formula used to calculate cardiac output
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CO (cardiac output) = SV (stroke volume) x HR (heart rate)
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contractility
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when the heart contracts more forcefully do to an increase cardiac output
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P wave
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One an EKG its the bump associated with the depolarization of the atria
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QRS complex wave
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in an EKG, the wave created by ventricular depolarization
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T wave
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on an EKG, the bump created by repolarization of the ventricles
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how does an EKG work
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Using metal electrodeds attached to the skin, a stylus moves across graph paper creating a record of the depolarization and repolarization of the heart as waves
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What is the largest artery in the body
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The aorta
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where is the cephalic vein
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it run between the elbow and the carpus on the cranio-medial aspect of the forearm
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Where is the femoral vein
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It runs along the medial aspect of the hind limb between the groin and the tarsal joint. it is used in cats more than in dogs
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Where is the saphenous vein
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It runs along the lateral aspect of the hind limb from the cranial aspect of the leg just above the tarsus to the caudal aspect just below the knee. More used in dogs than cats
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Where is the jugular vein
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Along the ventral aspect of each side of the neck, from the mandible to the shoulder in the muscular jugular groove
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where is the coccygeal vein
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it runs along the ventral midline of the tail. mainly used in ruminants and rodents
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What are the 3 main functions of blood
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transportation, regulation and defense
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hemoconcentration
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when there is less plasma in the bloodstream and the cells become more concentrated
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hemodilution
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when extra fluid in the plasma dilutes the cells
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what is the normal blood pH range
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7.35-7.45, ideal being 7.4 (slightly alkaline
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how many clotting factors are found in the blood
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13
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what is the liquid portion of blood called
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plasma
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what is the cellular portion of blood made up of
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red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
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what are the gases most abundant in plasma
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oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
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hemoglobin
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the protein in red blood cells that gives them there red color and enables them to carry large amounts of oxygen
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red blood cells (erythrocytes)
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they carry oxygen from the lungs to the cells and tissues of the body by the production of hemoglobin which binds with oxygen
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platelets (thrombocytes)
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they help prevent leaks from damaged blood vessels
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hematopoiesis
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term for production of all blood cells
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erythropoiesis
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the process of red cell production
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when stained what color is hemoglobin
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red
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whay do you have when you see lavender colored cytoplasm
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polychromasia, its when cells are not fully mature, but hemoglobin production is happening
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What do you have when you see a red stained cytoplasm
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A mature red blood cell
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What does a mature red blood cell contain
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65% water, 35% solids with hemoglobin making up about 95% of the solids
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hemolysis
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when the RBC sac ruptures
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What are the two components of hemoglobin
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Heme, which is the pigment portion and is produced in the mitochondria , and globin which is the protein portion and is produced by the ribosomes
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Many oxygen molecules can a hemoglobin carry
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every heme group can carry a molecule of oxygen, four heme groups attached to each globin molecule, so each hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of oxygen
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What are the normal types of hemoglobin
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Embryonic hemoglobin (HbE) which is found early and developing fetuses, fetal hemoglobin (HbF) which is present in fetal blood during mid to late gestation and up to a couple months after birth, and adult hemoglobin (Hb) found in the red blood cells beginning a couple weeks to a couple months after birth
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What is one of the best sources of energy for red blood cells
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Glucose
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What is the average life span of red blood cells
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Dogs / 110 days, cats / about 68 days, horses and sheep / up to 150 days, cows / a 160 days, mice / 20 to 30 days
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senescence
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The process of aging in red blood cells
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extravascular hemolysis
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The destruction of red blood cells that takes place outside the cardiovascular system by microphages all over the body. 90% of the destruction of senescent red blood cells occurs by this
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intravascular hemolysis
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Destruction of normal red blood cells that takes place within blood vessels. About 10% of normal red blood cells destruct by this
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anemia
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Decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the blood cause by insufficient numbers of red blood cells, decreased hemoglobin concentration, or a combination of both
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polycythemia
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Increase above normal in the number of red blood cells
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What are the three types of polycythemia
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Relative polycythemia, compensatory polycythemia, polycythemia rubra Vera
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platelets
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Pieces of cytoplasm that have been isolated and released from giant multinucleated cells (megakaryocytes) in the bone marrow. They are also known as thrombocytes
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thrombopoiesis
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production of platelets
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What are the three specific platelet functions
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Maintenance of vascular integrity, platelet plug formation, stabilization of the hemostatic plug by contributing to the process of fibrin formation
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What are the five types of white blood cells
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Neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, basophils , eosinophils
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What is the function of white blood cells
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To provide a defense for the body against foreign invaders
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polymorphonuclear
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the shape of a nucleus described as multilobed and segmented nucleus
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pleomorphic
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description of a nucleus as varying shapes and nonsegmented nucleus
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Which white blood cells are granulocytes
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Neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils
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When stained what color are eosinophils
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red
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When stained what color are basophils
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Blue
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When stained what color are neutrophils
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Neutrophils don't pick up stain very well they appear colorless or faintly violet
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granulopoiesis
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the production of all granulocytes
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What is the most numerous white blood cells circulation
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Neutrophils
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How long does it take to produce and mature neutrophil under normal conditions
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3-6 days, but this time can be shortened if the body has a sudden need for more neutrophils
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How many nuclear segments will a mature neutrophil in peripheral blood have
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2 to 5
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band neutrophil
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A neutrophil that has been released from the bone marrow before it is mature, it will have a horseshoe nucleus without any segmentation . When these are seen it is an indication that there is an increased demand for neutrophils beyond what the bone marrow can supply in mature neutrophils
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What is the function of a neutrophil
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They are phagocytes meaning they involve microorganisms and other microscopic debris in tissues
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What are the neutrophil granules
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They are organelles called lysosomes
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chemotaxis
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A process by which neutrophils and other cells are attracted by inflammatory chemicals produced by the interaction between microorganisms and the tissues they are invading
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What are three key functions associated with eosinophils
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Anti inflammatory response, immunity, phagocytosis
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eosinophilia
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increased number of eosinophils in peripheral blood
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eosinopenia
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Decreased numbers of eosinophils in peripheral blood
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basophilia
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Increase numbers of basophils in peripheral blood
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basopenia
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Decreased numbers of basophils in peripheral blood
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agranulocytes
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White blood cells that don't have specific staining granules in their cytoplasm, they include monocytes and lymphocytes
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What percent do monocytes makeup of the circulating white blood cells and all common domestic species
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5% to 6%
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What is the development time for monocytes
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24 to 36 hours
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Describe the nucleus of a monocyte
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It can be round or any number of shapes but it doesn't split up into distinct sentiments
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mononuclear phagocyte system
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Tissue macrophages and monocytes
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tissue macrophages
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monocytes that have entered the tissue
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What is the largest white blood cell in circulation
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Monocytes
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monocytosis
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an increased number of monocytes in the peripheral blood. it is often associated with a chronic inflammatory condition, such as an infection
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Monocytopenia
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A decreased number of monocytes in the peripheral blood
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What is the only white blood cell that has no phagocytic capabilities
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lymphocytes
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What is three different types of lymphocytes
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T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, and natural killer cells
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Where are T lymphocytes process before going to the peripheral lymphoid tissue
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The thymus
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thymocytes
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pre-T cells in the thymus
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What are T cells responsible for
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Cell -mediated immunity, and for activating B cells
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What are B cells responsible for
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Antibody production
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What does the B in B lymphocytes mean
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Bursa equivalent , it refers to bone marrow and other lymphoid tissue that to be equivalent of the bird organ called the bursa of fabricius
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antigen
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foreign protein
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epitope
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The unique shapes on the surface of antigens made up of amino acids
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blastic transformation
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when B cells become plasma cells
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What do plasma cells produce, store, and release
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immunoglobins
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What do large lymphocytes look like under the microscope
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A round or oval nucleus that does not segment, no granules in the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm looks sky -blue
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Memory cells
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Clones of both T cells and B cells. they do a second exposure to the same antigen
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lymphocytosis
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an increased number of lymphocytes in the peripheral blood
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lymphopenia
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a decreased number of lymphocytes in the peripheral blood
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the lymphatic system
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A series of vessels or ducts that carries excess tissue fluid to blood vessels near the heart where the fluid is put back into the bloodstream
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What does the lymphatic system include
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Lymph tissues scattered throughout the body in structures such as lymph nodes, the spleen, the thymus, the tonsils and the gut associated lymph tissue. as well as vessels and ducts
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lymph
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The fluid carried by the lymphatic system
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chyle
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lymph from the digestive system
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chylomicrons
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microscopic particles of fat that cause lymph to appear white or pale yellow and cloudy after a meal.
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What are 3 compartments of the lymphoid tissue system
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Bone marrow, central lymphoid organs, and peripheral lymphoid organs
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Central lymphoid organs
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Where immature lymphocytes are processed, these include the thymus, bone marrow, and gut associated lymph tissue
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Peripheral lymphoid organs
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where mature lymphocytes live, these include lymph nodes, tonsils, bone marrow, spleen, thymus , and GALT
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GALT
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Gut associated lymph tissue. it is a general term for lymphoid tissue found in the lining of the intestine
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What are the four primary functions of the lymphatic system
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Removal of excess tissue fluid, waste material transport, filtration of lymph , protein transport
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Lymph nodes
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Small kidney bean shaped structures located at various points along the lymph vessels
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afferent
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toward
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efferent
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away from
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microscopically a lymph node is divided into what
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a cortex and a medulla
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what is the soft tissue interior of the spleen divided into
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red pulp and white pulp
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what does the red pulp consist of
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blood vessels, tissue macrophages, and blood storage spaces
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what does white pulp consist of
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localized aread of lymphoid tissue
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where is the thymus located
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in the caudal neck and cranial thoracic region on either side of the trachea
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how do tonsils differ from lymph nodes
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1. Tonsils are found close to moist epithelial surfaces.
2. Tonsils don't have a capsule. 3. They are found at the beginning of the lymph drainage system, not along the lymph vessels like lymph nodes. 4. They are found in the larynx, intestine, prepuce, and vagina |
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what is a birds temperature generally between
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37° and 42°
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in passerines (song birds) where are red blood cells made
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in the spleen and liver
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in a healthy bird, where does the % of red blood cells to total blood volume fall between
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35% and 55%
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in an adult bird where are white blood cells primarily produced
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the spleen
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in young birds, where are white blood cells produced
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spleen, liver, kidneys, pancreas, and bursa of Fabricius
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where is the bursa of Fabricius located
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on the dorsal wall of the proctodeum in the cloaca
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heterophils
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In birds they are equivalent to neutrophils. They have a rod shape with red- orange granules in the cytoplasm
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In birds what color are the granules in the cytoplasm of eosinophils
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red-orange
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And birds what color is the nucleus of basophils
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dark blue
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in birds, where are thrombocytes produced
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by bone marrow in adult birds
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in birds, what % of plasma is water
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80%
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In birds what are the three vessels blood can be drawn most easily from
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The jugular vein, A brachial vain, or a medial metatarsal vein
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In birds where are the jugular veins located
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Ventrally on each side of the trachea. the right is larger than the left
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In birds where is a brachial vein located
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On the ventral side of the wings, extending over the elbow and up the humerus
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In birds where is the medial metatarsal vein located
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On the ventral medial side of the leg extending from the metatarsus dorsally over the heel joint
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What is the main job of the respiratory system
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To bring oxygen into the body and carry carbon dioxide out of the body
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What two kinds of respiration are constantly going on in the body
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External respiration and internal respiration
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External respiration
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Occurring in the lungs, it is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air inhaled into the lungs and the blood flowing through the pulmonary (lung) capillaries
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Internal respiration
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Occurring all over the body, it is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the blood in the capillaries all of the body(the systemic capillaries) and all the cells and tissues of the body.
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phonation
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voice production
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olfactory sense
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the sense of smell
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The upper portion of the respiratory tract includes what
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The nose, the pharynx(throat), the larynx(voice box), and the trachea(wind pipe)
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What is the first respiratory structure air incounters
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the nose
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nares
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the nostrils
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nasal septum
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A midline wall that separates the left nasal passage from the right
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What separates the nasal passages from the mouth
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Hard and soft palates
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What are the two turbinates found in each nasal passage
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Dorsal turbinate and a ventral turbinate
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The dorsal turbinate and the ventral turbinate divide each nasal passage into what three main passageways
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ventral nasal meatus, dorsal nasal meatus, and middle nasal meatus
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Where is the ventral nasal meatus located
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Between the ventral turbinate and the floor of the nasal passage
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Where is the middle nasal meatus located
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Between the two turbinates
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Where is the dorsal nasal meatus located
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Between the dorsal turbinate in the roof of the nasal passage
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Where is the common nasal meatus located
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on either side of the nasal septum
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What are the three main conditioning roles performed by the nasal lining
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Warming, humidifying, and filtering the inhaled air
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What sinuses do animals have
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Most animals have two frontal sinuses and two maxillary sinuses. Some animals have sphenoidal sinuses and ethmoidal sinuses
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What does the soft palate do
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Divides the pharynx into the dorsal nasopharynx and the ventral oropharynx
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Nasopharynx
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The respiratory passageway of the pharynx
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Oropharynx
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The digestive passageway of the pharynx
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Pharynx
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Throat
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Larynx
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A short irregular tube that connects the pharynx with the trachea. Also known as the voice box
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What is the most common major cartilages associated with the larynx
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epiglottis and the 2 arytenoid cartilages
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glottis
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The opening to the larynx
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What are the three main functions of the larynx
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Voice production, prevention of foreign material being inhaled, and control of airflow to and from the lungs
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How does tension on the vocal cords produce sound
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Low pitch sounds are made by lessening the tension of the vocal cords, high pitched sounds are made by tightening them
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vestibular folds
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In non-ruminant animals they're called the false vocal cords.
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bifurcation of the trachea
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The division into the two main bronchis of the trachea
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What causes the trachea to stay open and not collapse
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Incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage spaced along the length of the trachea. The rings are C shaped with the open part facing dorsally. Smooth muscle bridges the open end
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Bronchial tree
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The air passageways that lead from the bronchi to the alveoli
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Alveolar sacs
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Groups of aveolis
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Explain the parts in a bronchial tree
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1. bifurcation of the trachea
2. left and righy bronchus 3. bronchioles 4. alveolar ducts 5. alveolar sacs |
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What are the walls of each alveolus composed of
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Squamous epithelium
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surfactant
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A thin layer of fluid that lines alveolus. It helps reduce the surface tension
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bronchoconstriction
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When the bronchial smooth muscle contracts, reducing the size of the air passageways
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Each lung is described as having what surfaces
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A base, an apex, and a convex lateral surface
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Diaphragm
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The thin dome like sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity
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mediastinum
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The area between the lungs
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lobes
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Well defined regions of the lungs
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How many lobes does the left side of the lung have and what are the names
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It has two lobes the cranial and caudal lobe
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How many lobes does the right lung have and what are the names
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Four lobes. cranial, middle, caudal, and a small accessory lobe
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How many lobes does a horse lungs have
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The left and right lungs consists of one large lobe each, except for a very small accessory lobe on the right lung
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hilus
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A small well defined area on the medial sides of each long. This is where air, blood, lymph, and nerves enter and leave the lung
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Pulmonary circulation
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The blood supply to and from the lungs
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thorax
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Also known as the thoracic cavity, it is the chest cavity
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What are the main inspiratory muscles
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The diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
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What are the main expiratory muscles
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The internal intercoastal muscles and the abdominal muscles
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What are the terms used to describe the quantity of air involved in respiration
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Tidal volume, minute volume, and residual volume
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Tidal volume
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The volume of air inspired and expired during one breath
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Minute volume
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The volume of air inspired and expired during 1 minute, it is calculated by multiplying the tidal volume by the number of breaths per minute
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Residual volume
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The volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximum expiration
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Partial pressure
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The pressure of each individual gas
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What are the two main systems that control breathing
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A mechanical system, & a chemical system
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What are the three characteristics important to the control of the breathing process
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The co2 content, the pH, and the o2 content of the arterial blood
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