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127 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Functional Classifications of Joints |
based on relative joint mobility |
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Structural Classifications of Joints |
based on the way bones are held together |
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Divisions of Functional Classifications of Joints |
synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis |
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Divisions of Structural Classifications of Joints |
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial |
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Synarthrosis |
-immovable joint -structures: suture, gomphosis, synchondrosis |
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Amphiarthrosis |
-slightly movable -structures: syndemosis, smyphysis |
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Diarthrosis |
-freely movable -structure: synovial |
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Suture |
-dense regular connective tissue connects skull bones -function: synarthrosis |
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Gomphosis |
-periodontal membranes hold tooth to bony jaw (peg-in-socket joint) -function: synarthrosis |
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Synchondrosis |
-hyaline cartilage plate between bones -function: synarthrosis |
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Syndemosis |
-dense regular connective tissue fibers between bones -function: amphiarthrosis |
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Symphysis |
-fibrocartilage pad between bones -function: amphiarthrosis |
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Synovial |
-bones joined by synovial fluid in a joint capsule/cavity
-function: diarthrosis |
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Stabilizing Factors at Synovial Joints |
-shapes of articular surfaces (minor role) -ligament number and location (limited role) -muscle tone, which keeps tendons that cross the joint taut -important in reinforcing shoulder and knee joints and arches of the foot |
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Fibrous |
-dense regular connective tissue holds together the ends of the bones and bone parts -no joint cavity -bones joined by dense fibrous connective tissue |
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Cartilaginous Joints |
-pad of cartilage is wedged between the ends of bones -no joint cavity -bones joined by cartilage |
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Plane Joint |
-nonaxial -relatively flat surfaces apposing each other; like a book on a table -allow only slipping or gliding moments |
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Plane Joint Examples |
-intercarpal joint -intertarsal joint |
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Hinge Joint |
-uniaxial -door hinge -permits angular movements in a single plane (like a mechanical plane) -flexion & extension |
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Hinge Joint Examples |
-humeroulnar joint (elbow) -interphalangeal joint |
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Pivot Joint |
-uniaxial -door knob -permits only rotation -rotation of one bone around its own long axis |
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Pivot Joint Examples |
-proximal radioulnar joint (head of radius articulate with radial notch of ulna) -atlantoaxial joint (atlas and axis) |
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Condyloid Joint |
-biaxial -mostly spheric convex curved concave and convex surface that is enlarged in on dimension, paired with a shallow concave cup -flexion & extension; abduction & adduction |
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Condyloid Joint Examples |
-radiocarpal joint (wrist) -metacarpophalangeal joint (knuckle) |
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Saddle Joint |
-biaxial -each member has a reciprocally curved concave and convex surface oriented at right angles to the other; similar to condyloid joint, but allows greater movement -flexion & extension; abduction & adduction |
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Saddle Joint Examples |
carpometacarpal joint of the thumb |
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Ball-and-Socket Joints |
-multiaxial -spheric convex surface paired with a concave cup -flexion & extension; abduction & adduction; rotation; circumduction |
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Ball-and-Socket Joints Examples |
-glenohumeral joint (shoulder) -acetabulofemoral joint (hip) |
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Flexion |
decreased in the angle between articulating bones, brings the bones closer together |
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Extension |
increase in the angle between articulating bones |
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Hyperextension |
continuation of extension beyond the normal extension |
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Lateral Flexion |
-movement of the trunk sideways to the right or left at the wrist -movement of the trunk sideways to the right or left at the waist |
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Abduction |
movement of a bone away from the midline |
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Adduction |
movement of a body part toward the body midline; movement that returns body parts to normal position |
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Rotation |
movement of a body part around its own axis |
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Circumduction |
movement of a body part in a circle |
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Supination |
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces up |
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Pronation |
rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces down |
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Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) |
prevents tibia from hyperextension (moving forward) on the femur |
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Posterior Cruciate Ligament (PCL) |
prevents tibia from hyperflexion (moving backward) on the femur |
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Medial Collateral Ligament (MCL) |
prevents excessive abduction and resists forces that would push the knee medially |
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Lateral Collateral Ligament (LCL) |
prevents excessive adduction movement at the joint |
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Meniscus |
half-moon shaped (fibro)cartilage lying between the knee joint |
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Bursa |
small fluid-filled sac lined by synovial membrane |
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Tendon Sheath |
layer of synovial membrane around a tendon |
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Functions of Muscle Tissue |
-movement of bones or fluid (e.g., blood) -maintaining posture and body position -stabilizing joints -heat generation (especially skeletal muscle) |
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Cardiac Muscle Tissue - Structure |
bifurcated (branching), striated cells fused at plasma membrane |
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Cardiac Muscle Tissue - Function |
pumping blood in the circulatory system |
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Cardiac Muscle Tissue - Location |
only in the heart |
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Smooth Muscle Tissue - Structure |
long, spindle-shaped cells, each with a single nucleus |
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Smooth Muscle Tissue - Function |
propulsion of substances along internal passageways |
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Smooth Muscle Tissue - Location |
in walls of hollow organs throughout the body |
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue - Structure |
long striated cells with multiple nuclei |
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue - Function |
contraction for voluntary movements |
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue - Location |
attached to bones and skin |
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Myofilament |
-part of sarcomere -proteins -two types: actin (thin) and myosin (thick) |
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Myofibril |
-long organelle inside a muscle -wrapped in sarcoplasmic retuiculum |
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Myofiber |
-single muscle cell
-wrapped in endomysium |
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Fascicle |
-bundle of myofibers bounded together by perimysium -portion of muscle |
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Muscle |
-wrapped in epimysium -the whole organ |
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum |
-storage of calcium ions to be released when stimulated by an impulse -series of tubules -stores calcium -calcium moved from sarcoplasm into *insert term here* |
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Endomysium |
connective tissue that wraps each individual myofiber |
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Perimysium |
connective tissue that wraps bundles of muscle fibers - the "bundles" being known as fascicles |
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Epimysium |
connective tissue that wraps the entire muscle |
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Sarcolemma |
the cell membrane of a muscle fiber (myofiber) |
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Sarcoplasm |
the cytoplasm of a muscle fiber, rich in oxygen-storing myoglobin protein |
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Sarcomere |
contractile unit of a muscle fiber |
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Transverse Tubules |
conduct the nerve impulse from the sarcolemma to the interior of the cell |
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Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction |
a cycle of repetitive events that causes actin and myosin myofilaments to slide over each other, contracting the sarcomere and generating tension in the muscle |
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Stored ATP |
reactant: ATP products: ADP; phosphate duration: 4-6 seconds |
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Direct Phosphorylation |
reactant: creatine phosphate products: 1 ATP per creatine phosphate duration: 15-20 seconds |
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Glycolysis |
anaerobic pathway reactant: glucose products: 2 ATP per glucose; lactic acid duration: ~60 seconds |
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Cellular Respiration (aerobic) |
reactant: glucose; pyruvic acid; free fatty acids from adipose tissue; amino acids from protein catabolism products: 32 ATP per glucose; CO2; H2O duration: hours |
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Lactic Acid Formation(Fermentation) |
anaerobic pathway reactant: glucose products: 2 ATP per glucose; lactic acid duration: 60 seconds or slightly more |
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Why Would a Muscle Fatigue? |
occurs when ionic imbalances (K+, Ca2+, Pi) interfere with excitation-contraction coupling |
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Contraction |
-generation of force -doesn't necessarily cause shortening of the fiber -shortening occurs when tension generated by cross bridges on the thin filaments exceeds forces opposing shortening |
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Sliding Filament Model of Contraction |
-in the relaxed state, thin and thick filaments overlap only slightly -during contraction, myosin heads bind to actin, detach, and bind again, to propel the thin filaments toward the M line -as H zones shorten and disappear, sacromeres shorten, muscle cells shorten, and the whole muscle shortens |
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Neuromuscular Junction |
-situated midway along the length of a muscle fiber -axon terminal and muscle fiber are separated by a space called the synaptic cleft -synaptic vesicles of axon terminal contain the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) -junction folds (motor end plates) of the sarcolemma contain ACh receptors |
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Cross Bridge Cycle |
-cross bridge formation: myosin head attaches to actin -power stroke: myosin pulls actin toward the M line -cross bridge detachment: ATP attaches to myosin head and cross bridge detaches -cocking of the myosin head: energy from hydrolysis of ATP cocks the myosin head into the high-energy state |
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Muscle Twitch |
response of a muscle to a single, brief threshold stimulus |
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Phases of Muscle Twitch (in order) |
latent period period of contraction Refractory Period period of relaxation |
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Latent Period |
-events of excitation-contraction coupling -time required for excitation |
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Period of Contraction |
cross bridge formation; tension increases |
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Refractory Period |
muscle has temporarily lost it's ability to be excited |
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Period of Relaxation |
Ca2+ reentry into the sarcoplasmic reticulum; tension declines to zero |
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Threshold Stimulus |
stimulus strength at which the first observable muscle contraction occurs |
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Response to Change in Stimulus Strength |
-muscle contracts more vigorously as stimulus strength is increased above threshold -contraction force is precisely controlled by recruitment (multiple motor unit summation), which brings more and more muscle fibers into action |
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Muscle Tone |
constant, slightly contracted state of all muscles; state of readiness |
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Isotonic Contraction |
muscle changes in length and moves the load |
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Concentric Contraction |
the muscle shortens and does work |
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Eccentric Contraction |
the muscle lengthens as it does work (contracts) |
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Isometric Contraction |
-tension increases to the muscle's capacity, but the muscle neither shortens nor lengthens -ex: holding a bag still and putting a notebook in |
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Increasing Contractile Force Can Be Caused By Any of the Following: |
-large number of muscle fibers activated -large muscle fibers -high frequency of stimulation -muscle and sarcomere stretched to slightly over 100% of resting length |
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Muscle Fiber Types |
-speed of contraction -metabolic pathways for ATP synthesis |
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Speed of Contraction |
slow or fast according to: -speed at which myosin ATPases split ATP -pattern of electrical activity of the motor neurons |
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Metabolic Pathways for ATP Synthesis |
-oxidative fibers: use aerobic pathway -glycolyic fibers: use anaerobic pathway |
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Effects of Endurance Exercise |
-aerobic -lead to increased: muscle capillaries; number of mitochondria; myoglobin synthesis -results in greater endurance, strength, and resistance to fatigue -may convert fast glycolytic fibers into fast oxidative fibers |
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Effects of Resistance Exercise |
-anaerobic -muscle hypertrophy due to increase in fiber size -increased mitochondria, myofilaments glycogen stores, and connective tissue |
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Sprains |
ligaments are stretched or torn |
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Cartilage Tears |
-due to compression and shear stress -cartilage rarely repairs itself, surgery often necessary |
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Dislocations |
-occur when bones are forces out of alignment -accompanied by sprains, inflammation, and joint immobilization |
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Subluxation |
partial dislocation of a joint |
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Bursitis |
-an inflammation of a bursa, usually caused by a blow or friction -treated with rest and ice and, if severe, anti-inflammatory drugs |
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Tendonitis |
-inflammation of tendon sheaths typically caused by overuse -symptoms and treatment similar to bursitis |
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Arthritis |
-most widespread crippling disease in the US -symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of a joint -acute forms: caused by bacteria, treated with antibiotics -chronic forms: osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and gouty arthritis |
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Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) |
-chronic inflammatory, autoimmune disease of unknown cause -usually arises between age 40-50, but may occur at any age; affects 3x as many women as men -signs and symptoms: include joint pain and swelling (usually bilateral), anemia, osteoporosis, muscle weakness, and cardiovascular problems |
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Gouty Arthritis |
-deposition of uric acid crystals in joints and soft tissues, followed by inflammation -more common in men -typically affects the joint at the base of the big toe -if untreated, the bone ends fuse and immobilize the joint -treatment: drugs, plenty of water, avoidance of alcohol |
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Lyme Disease |
-caused by bacteria, transmitted by the bites of ticks -symptoms: skin rash, flu-like symptoms, and foggy thinking -may lead to joint pain and arthritis -treatment: antibiotics |
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Ligament |
-dense fibrous connective tissue attaching bones to together -reinforces joints |
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Tendon |
-dense fibrous connective tissue attaching muscle to bone -reinforces the joint capsule as it spans a joint |
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Articular Cartilage |
hyaline cartilage that covers the surface of all bones forming the joint |
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Joint Cavity |
a space between the articulating bones and is filled with synovial fluid |
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Articular Capsule |
two layers that enclose the joint cavity |
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Fibrous Layer |
tough external layer that is composed of dense irregular connective tissue |
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Synovial Membrane |
inner layer that is composed of loose connective tissue |
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Special Characteristics of Muscle Tissue |
-excitability (responsiveness or irritability): ability to receive and respond to stimuli -contractility: ability to shorten when stimulated -extensibility: ability to be stretched -elasticity: ability to recoil to resting length |
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Inversion |
a movement of the foot which causes the soles of the feet to face inwards |
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Eversion |
a movement of the foot which causes the soles of the feet to face outwards |
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Plantar Flexion |
movement of the foot in which the foot or toes flex downward toward the sole |
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Dorsiflexion |
movement of the foot in which the foot or toes flex upward |
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Z Disk |
formed between adjacent sarcomeres |
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Aponeurosis |
a type of connective tissue that provides a point for a muscle to attach to a bone or cartilage |
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End Plate |
large and complex terminal formation by which the axon of a motor neuron establishes synaptic contact with a striated muscle fiber |
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Motor Unit |
made up of a motor neuron and the skeletal muscle fibers innervated by that motor neuron's axonal terminals |
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Synaptic Cleft |
microscopic gap between neurons |
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Acetylcholine |
substance that is released at the junction between neurons and skeletal muscle fibers, where it works as a neurotransmitter |
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Acetylcholinesterase |
enzyme that breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at the synaptic cleft so the next nerve impulse can be transmitted across the synaptic gap |
