Ap Psychology Flashcards

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Introspection (Wundt)

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a conscious mental and usually purposive process relying on thinking, reasoning, and examining one's own thoughts feelings. Wundt believed that by using introspection he could determine the basic elements of consciousness.

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Behavioral School of Psychology (Skinner & Watson)

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Seeks to explain animal and human behavior entirely in terms of observable and measurable responses to environmental stimuli. Use classical and operant conditioning

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Humanist School of Psychology (Maslow, Rogers)

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Focuses on the uniqueness of human beings and their capacity for choice, growth, and health; Believe that people have free will and are not controlled by the environment or their past

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Psychoanalytic School of Psychology (Freud)

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"believes that a lot of our personality and behaviors are controlled by our unconscious; another big factor guiding behavior is sex and aggression

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Neurobiological School of Psychology

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Emphasizes that all actions, feelings, and thoughts are associated with bodily events such as the firing of nerve cells in the brain or the release of hormones; This includes studying the brain, hormones and genes to explain behavior

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Socio-cultural School of Psychology (AKA "Cross-cultural", etc.)

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Studies the differences among cultures and the influences of culture on behavior; States that we have a tendency to use our own culture as a standard for judging other cultures (a term called ethnocentrism)

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Evolutionary School of Psychology

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theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain mental and psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, i.e., as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.

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Cognitive School of Psychology

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Focuses on the important role of mental processes in how people process information, develop language, solve problems and think. Interested in how people understand, diagnose, and solve problems

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Clinical Psychologist

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assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. These range from short-term crises, such as difficulties resulting from adolescent rebellion, to more severe, chronic conditions such as schizophrenia.

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Counseling psychologist

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help people recognize their strengths and resources to cope with their problems within families, marriages, and adjustment to new conditions. perform therapy, teaching, and scientific research with individuals of all ages, families, and organizations.

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Cognitive and Perceptual Psychologists

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study human perception, thinking, and memory; also study reasoning, judgment, and decision making.

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Developmental Psychologist

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study the psychological growth of the human being that takes place throughout life. Until recently, the primary focus was on childhood and adolescence, the most formative years. Recently expanded to all of life, espeically older age.

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Educational Psychologist

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concentrate on how effective teaching and learning take place. They consider a variety of factors, such as human abilities, student motivation, and the effect on the classroom of the diversity of race, ethnicity, and culture that makes up America.

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Engineering Psychologist

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conduct research on how people work best with machines. EX: how can a computer be designed to prevent fatigue and eye strain? What arrangement of an assembly line makes production most efficient? What is a reasonable workload?

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Evolutionary Psychologist

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study how evolutionary principles such as mutation, adaptation, and selective fitness influence human thought, feeling, and behavior. Study mating, aggression, helping behavior, and communication.

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Experimental Psychologist

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are interested in a wide range of psychological phenomena, including cognitive processes, comparative psychology (cross-species comparisons), learning and conditioning. Often engage in basic research

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Forensic Psychologist

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apply psychological principles to legal issues. Their expertise is often essential in court. EX: help a judge decide which parent should have custody of a child or evaluate a defendant's mental competence to stand trial.

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Health Psychologist

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specialize in how biological, psychological, and social factors affect health and illness. They study how patients handle illness; why some people don't follow medical advice; and the most effective ways to control pain or to change poor health habits.

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Industrial/Organizational Psychologist

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apply psychology to the work place in the interest of improving productivity and the quality of work life. Many serve as human resources specialists, helping organizations with staffing, training, and employee development.

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Neuropsychologist

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explore the relationships between brain systems and behavior. EX: may study the way the brain creates and stores memories, or how various diseases and injuries of the brain affect emotion, perception, and behavior.

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Quantitative and measurement psychologist

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focus on methods and techniques for designing experiments and analyzing psychological data. They develop and evaluate mathematical models for psychological tests, among many other things

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School Psychologist

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work directly with public and private schools. They assess and counsel students, consult with parents and school staff, and conduct behavioral interventions when appropriate. Most school districts employ psychologists full time

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Social Psychologist

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study how a person's mental life and behavior are shaped by interactions with other people. They are interested in all aspects of interpersonal relationships, including both individual and group influences. EX: study effects of prejudice

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Sports Psychologist

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help athletes refine their focus on competition goals, become more motivated, and learn to deal with the anxiety and fear of failure that often accompany competition.

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Rehabilitation Psychologist

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They deal with issues of personal adjustment, interpersonal relations, the work world, and pain management. work with stroke and accident victims, people with mental retardation, etc.

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psychiatrist

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they can prescribe drugs unlike psychologists. Begin their careers in medical school, unlike psychologists that get bachelors in psychology. After earning their MD, they go on to four years of residency training in mental health

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basic research

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has as its objective the advancement of knowledge. It is exploratory and often driven by the researcher’s curiosity, interest, and intuition. It is conducted without any practical end in mind, though it may later have an application

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applied research

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research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to aqcquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. Often has a very particular end in mind. EX: Curing cancer

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population

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all of the individuals in the group to whch the study applies

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anchoring effect

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the tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point, pulling our response towards that point

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actor-observer bias

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tendency to focus on our own situations and the other person rather than his/her situation when interpreting behavior

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hindsight bias

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a tendency to falsely report, after the event, that we correctly predicted the outocme of the event.

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overconfidence bias

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the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments, which proves to be a hindrance in problem solving

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confirmation bias

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a tendency to search for and use information that supports our preconceptions and ignore information that refutes our ideas; often a hindrance to problem solving.

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illusory correlation

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the phenomenon of seeing the relationship one expects in a set of data even when no such relationship exists. EX: When people form false associations between membership in a statistical minority group and rare behaviors

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false-consensus effect

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the tendency of a person to perceive his or her own views as representative of a general consensus

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case study

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intensive investigation of the behavior and mental processes associated with a specific person or situation

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survey

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research mehtod that obtains large samples of abilities, beliefs, or behaviors at a specific time and place through questionnaire or interview

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random sample (AKA "random selection")

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choosing of members of a population so that every individual has an equal chance of being chosen

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naturalistic observation

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research method that records behaviors of humans or other animals in real-life situations without intervention

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Correlation Study

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expresses the relationship between 2 variables; DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION

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positive correlation

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in correlation, the two factors are going in the same direction. EX: As the temperature goes up, more people buy snow cones

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negative correlation

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in correlation, the two factors are going in opposite directions. EX: As the temperature goes up, hot chocolate consumption goes down.

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correlation coefficient

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a statistical measure of the degree of relatedness or association between two sets of data that ranges from -1 to +1. Little "r" represents. "r=.9" is a very strong positive correlation, whereas "r=.2" is a very weak positive correlation.

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experimental method

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the manipulation of an IV to understand its effect on a DV; Identifies Cause-effect

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Control Condition

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The condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

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Experimental Condition

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The condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

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independent variable

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the factor in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter and is given to the experimental group. It's the one thing that is different between the experimental group and the control group.

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Dependent Variable

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The outcome factor; the variable may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

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Confounding Variable

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any possible variable- other than the IV - that may cause the observed effect; thus making it impossible to determine the actual cause of the change in the DV.

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Random assignment

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random placement of subjects into experimental or control groups;

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within-group design

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A _____ study is an experiment where all subjects test (and respond to) all treatment combinations. _____ design is the opposite of a between-subjects design.

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between-subjects design

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each participant participates in one and only one group. The results from each group are then compared to each other to examine differences, and thus, effect of the IV.

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single blind

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Term used to described a study in which either the investigator or the participant, but not both of them, is unaware of the nature of the treatment the participant is receiving. Also called single-masked

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double blind study

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a study in which both the investigator or the participant are blind to (unaware of) the nature of the treatment the participant is receiving. Prevents expectations of researcher or participant from influencing results

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Experimenter Bias

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the phenomenon in experimental science by which the outcome of an experiment tends to be biased towards a result expected by the human experimenter.

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placebo

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A substance containing no medication and prescribed or given to reinforce a patient's expectation to get well; An inactive substance or preparation used as a control in an experiment or test to determine the effectiveness of a medicinal drug.

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placebo effect

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The beneficial effect in a patient following a particular treatment that arises from the patient's expectations concerning the treatment rather than from the treatment itself.

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meta-analyses

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The process or technique of synthesizing research results by using various statistical methods to retrieve, select, and combine results from previous separate but related studies

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variance

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The square of the standard deviation. Whereas the mean is a way to describe the location of a distribution, this is a way to capture its scale or degree of being spread out.

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Standard Deviation

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a measure of variation (or variability) that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean.

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Statistical Significance

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A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occured by chance. Numerically, 5% or (.05) is generally considered the cutoff.

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three measures of central tendency

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mean, mode, and the median. These measures tend to tell us something about the "center" of a set of statistics. On a curve of normal distribution, they all fall on the same point.

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mode

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most frequently occuring event

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mean

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average

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median

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midpoint

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Operational Definition

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A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables.

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null hypothesis

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a hypothesis set up to be refuted in order to support an alternative hypothesis. When used, it is presumed true until statistical evidence indicates otherwise

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confidentiality, no lasting harm, debriefing after the study, informed consent

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list 4 ethical guidelines

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biological psychology

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a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior. (Some biological psychologists call themselves neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)

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neuron

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a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.

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soma (AKA "cell body", "cyton")

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the part of the neuron that contains cytoplasm and the nucleus, which directs synthesis of such substances as NTs

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dendrite

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branch-like structures on neurons that receive messages from the axons of other neurons and transmit them towards the cell body. Each neuron may have thousands of these structures.

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axon

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the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands.

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myelin sheath

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a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

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action potential

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a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

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threshold

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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.

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synapse

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the junction between the axon top of the sending neuron and the dendrite of cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

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acetylcholine (ACh)

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a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction.

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endorphins

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"morphine within" natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

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Norepinephrine (AKA "noradrenaline")

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Involved in making us feel alert (increases heartbeat and arousal); Also involved in learning and memory retrieval; EX: NE activates your bodies emergency response (heart rate up, sweat, blood pressure up)

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Serotonin

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Natural tranquilizer (deep dreamless sleep, reduces hunger, makes you calm, reduces pain); Also associated with moods and emotional states: Depression; We naturally get _____ from L-Tryptophan in our diet (ex: turkey)

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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

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Controls anxiety; Also involved in the area of our brain that controls daily sleep and wake cycles; EX: Most sedatives or tranquilizers (Valium and Xanax) increase _____, alcohol also increases; Overdose of this shuts down breathing

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Dopamine

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Important for movement control, attention, learning and pleasure/rewarding sensations; a deficiency is associated with Parkinson's disease, an excess may be associated with schizophrenia

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nerves

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neural "cables" containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

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sensory neurons

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neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system.

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motor neurons

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neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

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interneurons

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central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

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neural networks

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interconnected neural cells. With experience, they can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results.

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Nodes of Ranvier

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the gaps between the myelin sheaths

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Axon Terminal Buttons

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Where neurotransmitters are started and released

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Refactory Period

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A time when the nueron is recharging and cannot fire

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Resting Potential

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Charged and ready, positive outside, negative inside

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white matter

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Parts of the nervous system that contain myelinted axons

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multiplesclerosis (MS)

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a disease of the central nervous system in which the myelin sheath that insulates axons is damaged or destroyed

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350,000

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How many people in America have MS?

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ions

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electrically charged chemical particles

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resting potential

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The electrical potential across the cell membrane of a neuron in its resting state.

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-70 mV (millivolts)

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Resting potential of a neuron

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depolarization

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A positive shift in the electrical charge in the neuron's resting potential, making it less negativelly charged.

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all-or-none response

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the law that the neuron either generates an action potential when the stimulation reaches threshold or it doesn't fire when stimulation is below threshold. The strength of the action potential is constant whenever it occurs.

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Action potentials of different speeds depend on two things -

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"-thickness (the thicker, the quicker)

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receptor site

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A site on the receiving neuron in which neurotransmitters dock.

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excitatory effect

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make an action potential more likely to occur

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inhibitory effect

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makes action potential less likely to occur. May cancel out excitatory messages

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excitation threshhold

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level by which the excitatory messages exceed the inhibitory messages

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reuptake

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The process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the transmitting neuron

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enzymes

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Organic substances that produce certain chemical changes in other organic substances through a catalytic action

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neuromodulators

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Chemicals released in the nervous system that influence the sensitivity of the receiving neuron to neurotransmitters.

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synaptic terminals (AKA "synaptic knob")

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A bulb at the end of an axon in which neurotransmitter molecules are stored and released.

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synaptic vesicles

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places were NT's are stored until release into the synapse

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selective permeability

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The property of a membrane or other material that allows some substances to pass through it more easily than others.

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sodium-potassium pump

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A mechanism of active transport that moves potassium ions into and sodium ions out of a cell.

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Agonists

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drugs that work by mimicking particular neurotransmitter (may temp. produce a high by amp norm. sensations of arousal or pleasure)

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Antagonists

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drugs that work by blocking neurotransmitters (is enough like the natural neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and block its effect, but not similar enough to stimulate the receptor

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afferent neuron (AKA "sensory neuron")

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nerve cell in our PNS that transmits impolses from receptors to the brain or spinal cord

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glial cells (glia)

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cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.

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central nervous system (CNS)

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the brain and spinal cord

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peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body.

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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

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subdivision of PNS that includes motor nerves that innervate smooth (involuntary) or heart muscle. Its sympathetic nervous sytem prepares the body for "fight or flight"; the PNS causes bodily changes for matinence or rest

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somatic nervous system

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the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.

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Sympathetic Nervous System

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

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the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

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reflex

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a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.

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lesion

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tissue destruction. A brain _____ is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

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electroencephalogram (EEG)

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an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes places on the scalp.

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PET (positron emission tomography) scan

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a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissues; allows us to see structures within the brain.

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fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imagines)

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a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI scans show brain function.

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SQUID

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Superconducting quantum interference device- used to pinpoint location of neural activity.

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CAT scan

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Computerized axial tomography-Through thousands of different x-rays, it shows an image of the brain. Shows abnormalities in the structure of the brain, but can't be used to see activity.

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brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.

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reticular formation

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a nerve network in the brainstem that plays and important role in controlling arousal.

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thalamus

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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.

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cerebellum

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the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.

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limbic system

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a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and the hypothalamus.

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amygdala

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two lima bean-sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion.

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hypothalamus

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a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion.

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cerebral cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center. Judgment, control, planning

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frontal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscles movements and in making plans and judgments.

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parietal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.

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occipital lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes the visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field.

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temporal lobes

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the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear.

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motor cortex

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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.

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sensory cortex

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the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.

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association areas

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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.

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aphasia

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impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

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Broca'ss area

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controls language expression; an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

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Wernicke's area

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controls language reception; a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.

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plasticity

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the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development.

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corpus callosum

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the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

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split brain

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a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connecting fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) between them.

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Phrenology

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Frans Gaul's Theory of reading bumps on the head and that the brain was in sections

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endocrine system

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the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

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glands

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Body organs or structures that produce secretions.

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hormones

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Secretions from endocrine glands that help regulate bodily processes

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pituitary gland

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"An endocrine gland in the brain that produces various hormones involved in growth, regulation of the menstrual cycle, and childbirth.

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hGRF

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growth-hormone releasing factors that stimulate the pituitary to release growth hormone (GH), which promotes physical growth

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pineal gland

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A small endocrine gland in the brain that produces the hormone melatonin, which is involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles

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gonads

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Sex glands (testes in men, ovaries in women) that produce sex hormones and germ cells (sperm in the male, egg cells in the female)

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ovaries

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The female gonads, which secrete the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone, and produce mature egg cells

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testes

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The male gonads, which produce sperm and secrete the male sex hormone testosterone

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germ cells

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Sperm and egg cells from which new life develops

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thyroid gland

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An endocrine gland in the neck that secretes the hormone throxin, which is involved in regulating metabolic functions and physical growth

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concordance rates

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In twin studies, the percentages of cases in which both members of twin pairs share the same trait or disorder

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Adrenal

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endocrine glands atop kidneys.

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Adrenal cortex

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the outer layer of gland, produces steroid hormones such as cortisol, which is a stress hormone.

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Adrenal medulla

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the core of the gland; secretes adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine), which prepare the body for "fight or flight," as does the sympathetic nervous system

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Pancreas

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An endocrine gland located near the stomach that produces the hormone insulin

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genotype

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an organism's genetic code

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genes

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Basic units of heredity that contain the individual's genetic code

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DNA

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the basic chemical material in chromosomes that carries the individuals genetic code

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chromosomes

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rodlike structures in the cell nucleus that house the individuals genes

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nature-nurture problem

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The debate in psychology about the relative influences of genetics and environment in determining behavior

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phenotype

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The observable physical and behavioral characteristics of an organism representing the influences of the genotype and environment

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polygenic traits

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Traits that are influenced by multiple genes interacting in complex ways

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zygote

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a fertilized egg cell

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insulin

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a hormone produced by the pancreas, regulates the concentration of glucose (sugar) in the blood.

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lesion studies

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examining the psychological effects of damage to the brain; responsible for much of knowledge on cortical localization

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ablation

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Surgical excision or amputation of a body part or tissue.

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Absolute Threshold

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The minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.

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Accommodation

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(perceptual) - The process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.

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Acuity

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The sharpness of vision.

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Anosmia

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The inability to smell.

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Audition

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The sense of hearing.

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Basilar Membrane

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Runs the length of the spiraled cochlea, holds the auditory receptors.

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Binocular Cues

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Depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes.

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Blind Spot

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The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye and does not contain receptor cells.

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Bottom-up Processing

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Analysis that begins with the sense receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information.

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Cochlea

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A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses.

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Cocktail Party Effect

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The ability to attend selectively to only one voice among many.

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Color Constancy

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Perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.

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Conduction Hearing Loss

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Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.

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Cones

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Receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. They detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

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Convergence

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A binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object.

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Cornea

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The curved, transparent, protective layer through which light rays enter the eye.

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Dark Adaptation

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The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.

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Depth Perception

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The ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.

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Difference Threshold

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The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. (Also called just noticeable difference or jnd.)

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Eardrum

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The thin, semitransparent, oval-shaped membrane that separates the middle ear from the external ear.

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Extrasensory Perception

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(ESP) - The controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. Said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.

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Farsightedness

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A condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina.

Front 206

Feature Detectors

Back 206

Nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.

Front 207

Figure-ground

Back 207

The organization of the visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings.

Front 208

Fovea

Back 208

The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster.

Front 209

Frequency

Back 209

The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).

Front 210

Frequency Theory

Back 210

In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.

Front 211

Gate-control Theory

Back 211

The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain.

Front 212

Gestalt

Back 212

An organized whole. Emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

Front 213

Grouping

Back 213

The perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.

Front 214

Habituation

Back 214

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation.

Front 215

Hue

Back 215

The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

Front 216

Human Factors Psychology

Back 216

A branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be adapted to human behaviors.

Front 217

Inner Ear

Back 217

The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.

Front 218

Intensity

Back 218

The amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude.

Front 219

Iris

Back 219

A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.

Front 220

Kinesthesis

Back 220

The system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.

Front 221

Lens

Back 221

The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.

Front 222

Middle Ear

Back 222

The chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window.

Front 223

Monocular Cues

Back 223

Distance cues, such as linear perspective and overlap, available to either eye alone.

Front 224

Motion Parallax

Back 224

(relative motion) - Monocular cue for depth that involves images of objects at different distances moving across the retina at different rates.

Front 225

Nearsightedness

Back 225

A condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina.

Front 226

Olfaction

Back 226

The sense of smell.

Front 227

Opponent-process Theory

Back 227

(color) - The theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.

Front 228

Optic Nerve

Back 228

The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.

Front 229

Parallel Processing

Back 229

The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.

Front 230

Perception

Back 230

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.

Front 231

Perceptual Adaptation

Back 231

In vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.

Front 232

Perceptual Constancy

Back 232

Perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change.

Front 233

Perceptual Set

Back 233

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.

Front 234

Pheromones

Back 234

Chemicals released by one animal and detected by another that shape the second animal's behavior or physiology.

Front 235

Phi Phenomenon

Back 235

An illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in succession.

Front 236

Pitch

Back 236

A tone's highness or lowness; depends on frequency.

Front 237

Place Theory

Back 237

In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated.

Front 238

Psychophysics

Back 238

The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.

Front 239

Pupil

Back 239

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.

Front 240

Retina

Back 240

The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.

Front 241

Retinal Disparity

Back 241

A binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater the difference between the two images, the closer the object.

Front 242

Rods

Back 242

Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond.

Front 243

Selective Attention

Back 243

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect.

Front 244

Sensation

Back 244

The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.

Front 245

Sensorineural Hearing Loss

Back 245

Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.

Front 246

Sensory Adaptation

Back 246

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.

Front 247

Sensory Interaction

Back 247

The principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.

Front 248

Shape Constancy

Back 248

Refers to our perceiving an object as retaining its shape even when the shape it casts on the retina changes.

Front 249

Signal Detection Theory

Back 249

A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation. Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue.

Front 250

Size Constancy

Back 250

The perception that an object remains the same size despite changes in the size of the proximal stimulus on the retina.

Front 251

Stroboscopic Motion

Back 251

An illusion in which images flashed in rapid succession are perceived as moving.

Front 252

Subliminal Perception

Back 252

The registration of sensory input without conscious awareness. Below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness.

Front 253

Taste Buds

Back 253

Clusters that contain taste-receptor cells located inside the small visible protrusions on the tongue.

Front 254

Top-down Processing

Back 254

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.

Front 255

Transduction

Back 255

Conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies into neural impulses.

Front 256

Trichromatic Theory

Back 256

(Young-Helmholtz) - The theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color.

Front 257

Vestibular Sense

Back 257

The sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.

Front 258

Visual Capture

Back 258

The tendency for vision to dominate the other senses.

Front 259

Visual Cliff

Back 259

A laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.

Front 260

Wavelength

Back 260

The distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

Front 261

Weber's Law

Back 261

The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).

Front 262

Afterimage

Back 262

A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.

Front 263

semicircular canals

Back 263

Any of three tubular and looped structures of the inner ear, together functioning in maintenance of the sense of balance in the body.

Front 264

phantom limb sensation

Back 264

the sensation that an amputated or missing limb is still attached to the body and is moving appropriately with other body parts

Front 265

Parapsychology

Back 265

The study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.

Front 266

Gansfeld Procedure

Back 266

experimental design which supposedly enables people who claim to have mental telepathy to read the minds of others. The person covers their eyes, has white noise (subtle hissing or humming) played low into their ears, softens the lights and this kind of sensory deprivation supposedly enables them to block out distractions so they can concentrate on reading someone's mind in another room.

Front 267

telepathy

Back 267

describes the purported transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the five classical senses

Front 268

clairvoyance

Back 268

is the purported ability to gain information about an object, location or physical event through means other than the known human senses

Front 269

precognition

Back 269

unconscious encoding of information about space, time, and frequency that occurs without interfering with our thinking about other things

Front 270

psychokinesis

Back 270

a collection of cells that press together against the walls of capillaries to block many substances from entering the brain, while allowing others to pass

Front 271

false positive

Back 271

a perceived stimulus that is not really there

Front 272

false negative

Back 272

not perceiving a stimulus that is present

Front 273

top-down processing

Back 273

perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense by using background knowledge, or our schematas

Front 274

schemata

Back 274

mental representations of how we expect the world to be

Front 275

perceptual set

Back 275

predisposition to perceving something in a certain way

Front 276

backmasking

Back 276

supposed hidden messages musicians recorded backward in their music in the 1980s

Front 277

figure-ground relationship

Back 277

the relationship between what part of a picture is the groun and which part is the background

Front 278

proximity

Back 278

objects that are close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group

Front 279

similarity

Back 279

objects that are similar in appearance are more likey to be perceived as belonging in the same group

Front 280

continuity

Back 280

objects that form a continuous form are more likely to be perceived as beloning in the same group

Front 281

closure

Back 281

similar to top-down processing, objects that make up a recognizable image are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group even if the image contains gaps that the mind needs to fill in

Front 282

constancy

Back 282

our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite these change in angle, variations in light and so on

Front 283

Visual-cliff experiment

Back 283

E.J. Gibson's experiment determining when human infants can perceive death - infant placed on one side of a glass topped table that creates impression of a cliff - once infant is old enough to crawl they will not croll across the visual cliff - has developed depth perception

Front 284

mononcular cues

Back 284

depth cues that do not depend on two eyes

Front 285

binocular cues

Back 285

cues that depend on having two eyes

Front 286

automatic processing

Back 286

Unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meanings.

Front 287

blood-brain barrier

Back 287

brain has thicker walls of bloodstream

Front 288

Alpha Waves

Back 288

The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Front 289

Amphetamines

Back 289

Drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Front 290

Barbiturates

Back 290

Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Front 291

Biofeedback

Back 291

The technique of using monitoring devices to furnish information regarding an autonomic bodily function, such as heart rate or blood pressure, in an attempt to gain some voluntary control over that function.

Front 292

Biological Rhythms

Back 292

Periodic physiological fluctuations.

Front 293

Cataplexy

Back 293

Sudden loss of muscle control.

Front 294

Circadian Rhythm

Back 294

The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Front 295

Consciousness

Back 295

Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Front 296

Depressants

Back 296

Drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.

Front 297

Dissociation

Back 297

A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

Front 298

Dream

Back 298

A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. They are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.

Front 299

Dualism

Back 299

The presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact.

Front 300

Ecstasy

Back 300

MDMA - A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

Front 301

Hallucinations

Back 301

False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Front 302

Hallucinogens

Back 302

Psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.

Front 303

Hidden Observer

Back 303

Hilgard's term describing a hypnotized subject's awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis.

Front 304

Hypnosis

Back 304

A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Front 305

Insomnia

Back 305

Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.

Front 306

Latent Content

Back 306

According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream.

Front 307

LSD

Back 307

A powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).

Front 308

Manifest Content

Back 308

According to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream.

Front 309

Meditation

Back 309

A state of consciousness often induced by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions, and minimizing external stimulation. May be intended to enhance self-knowledge, well-being, and spirituality.

Front 310

Monism

Back 310

The presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing.

Front 311

Narcolepsy

Back 311

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Front 312

Near-Death Experience

Back 312

An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.

Front 313

Opiate

Back 313

Opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Front 314

Physical Dependence

Back 314

A physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

Front 315

Posthypnotic Amnesia

Back 315

Supposed inability to recall what one experienced during hypnosis; induced by the hypnotist's suggestion.

Front 316

Posthypnotic Suggestion

Back 316

A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

Front 317

Psychoactive Drugs

Back 317

A chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.

Front 318

Psychological Dependence

Back 318

A psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions.

Front 319

REM Rebound

Back 319

The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).

Front 320

REM Sleep

Back 320

Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also know as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

Front 321

Sleep

Back 321

Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness - as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation. (Adapted from Dement, 1999.)

Front 322

Sleep Apnea

Back 322

A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and consequent momentary reawakenings.

Front 323

Stimulants

Back 323

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines and cocaine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Front 324

THC

Back 324

The major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

Front 325

Tolerance

Back 325

The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect.

Front 326

Withdrawal

Back 326

The discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

Front 327

Sleep Stage 1

Back 327

the brain transitions from alpha waves to theta waves. Hypnagogic hallucinations and myoclonic jerks during this stage, shortest stage, usually lasting around 15 minutes

Front 328

Sleep Stage 2

Back 328

Heart rate; breathing slow down, the beginning of true sleep; constitutes 45 and 55% of total sleep time; mainly theta waves, some delta waves begin to emerge; is characterized by "sleep spindles" and "K-complexes."

Front 329

Sleep Stage 3

Back 329

Breathing, heart rate slows down even more, muscles relax; Dreams are more common; delta waves make up less than 50% of the total wave-patterns. Night terrors, bed wetting, sleepwalking and sleep-talking may occur.

Front 330

Sleep Stage 4

Back 330

delta-waves make up more than 50% of the wave-patterns. Stages N3 and N4 are the deepest forms of sleep; N4 is effectively a deeper version of N3, in which the deep-sleep characteristics, such as delta-waves, are more pronounced.

Front 331

sleep spindles

Back 331

short rapid bursts of brain waves during stage 2 of sleep

Front 332

hypnogogic sensations

Back 332

The hypnagogic experience occurs between being awake and asleep; Experienced qualities vary, and include fear, awareness of a "presence," a falling sensation or a feeling of tripping (as hypnic jerks are interpreted by the brain).

Front 333

Delta Waves

Back 333

The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

Front 334

slow-wave sleep

Back 334

stages 3 and 4, often called delta sleep because of the delta waves --- the slower the wave, the deeper the sleep and less aware we are of our environment - during this period our body fortifies our body

Front 335

Paradoxical Sleep

Back 335

REM sleep, brain waves are as we're awake

Front 336

night terrors

Back 336

nightmares - occurs during stage 4 sleep

Front 337

somnambulism

Back 337

sleep walking - occurs during stage 4 sleep

Front 338

activation-synthesis hypothesis

Back 338

during REM sleep, the brainstem stimulates the forebrain with random neural actdivity, which we interpret as a dream.

Front 339

Phineas Gage

Back 339

massive damage to frontal lobe when a rod pierced his brain leaving perfect memory and intellect but altered his personality

Front 340

acquisition

Back 340

learning a new behavior; refers to the initial stage of conditioning in which the new response is established and gradually strengthened

Front 341

classical conditioning

Back 341

learning that takes place when two or more stimuli are presented together; unconditioned stimulus is pared repeatedly with a neurtral stimulus until it acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response

Front 342

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Back 342

In classical condition, the unlearned, naturally occuring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

Front 343

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Back 343

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally, both naturally and automatically, triggers a response.

Front 344

Conditioned Response (CR)

Back 344

In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

Front 345

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Back 345

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

Front 346

Generalization

Back 346

The tendency for stimuli similiar to the CS to elicit simliar responses once a response has been conditioned.

Front 347

Discrimination

Back 347

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli thta do not signal a US.

Front 348

Operant Conditioning

Back 348

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Front 349

Respondant Behavior

Back 349

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.

Front 350

Operant Behavior

Back 350

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Front 351

Law of Effect

Back 351

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely to recur, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Front 352

Shaping

Back 352

Skinner used shaping, an operant conditioning procedure during which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. Pigeon taught to walk in circles.

Front 353

Positive Reinforcement

Back 353

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

Front 354

Negative Reinforcement

Back 354

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus, that, when removed, after a response, strengthens the response. (It isn't punishment, it is the cessation of such)

Front 355

Primary Reinforcer

Back 355

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one thta satisfies a biological need. (Ex: Having sex for satisfaction)

Front 356

Conditioned Reinforcer (Secondary Reinforcer)

Back 356

Stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer. (Ex: money)

Front 357

Continuous Reinforcement

Back 357

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occur. (Ex: Press button= get food. So, keep pressing button b/c you keep getting food.)

Front 358

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Back 358

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in lower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

Front 359

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

Back 359

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

Front 360

Variable-Ratio Schedule

Back 360

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; schedules deliver reinforcement after a random number of responses (based upon a predetermined average)

Front 361

Fixed-Interval Schedule

Back 361

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

Front 362

Variable-Interval Schedule

Back 362

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals; schedules deliver reinforcement for the first response after a random average length of time passes since the last reinforcement

Front 363

Latent Learning

Back 363

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. (Ex:rats knowledge of maze for food.)

Front 364

Acquisition

Back 364

learning by CC

Front 365

Delayed conditioning

Back 365

Acquisition fastest if bell is rung and food presented while still ringing

Front 366

Trace conditioning

Back 366

variant of the standard conditioning process, a short interval (500 to 1000 ms) is interposed between the offset of the CS and the onset of the US; CS, break, US

Front 367

Simultaneous conditioning

Back 367

The CS and US are presented at the same time.

Front 368

backwards conditioning

Back 368

The onset of the US precedes the onset of the CS. Rather than being a reliable predictor of an impending US (such as in Forward Conditioning), the CS actually serves as a signal that the US has ended. As a result, the CR is said to be inhibitory.

Front 369

blocking

Back 369

the inability to condition a second stimulus because of prior conditioning to another stimulus that is also present during training

Front 370

Punishment

Back 370

anything weakens a response or increases the chance that it will occur; EX: depends on the person, if motivated by attention, if you ignore them it is punishment (people in class that love to talk).

Front 371

Positive punishment

Back 371

Decreases behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus; EX: Adding unwanted stimulus – spanking, a prison sentence, or criticizing someone (also works to decrease future behavior)

Front 372

Negative punishment

Back 372

Decreases behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus; EX: Removal of reinforcer – taking away car keys to punish a teenager, or taking away affection (work to decrease future behavior)

Front 373

higher order conditioning

Back 373

pairing a neutral stimulus with a previously conditioned stimulus (NOT with a stimulus that naturally produces the response) to make the neutral stimulus a second conditioned stimulus that will elicit the conditioned response

Front 374

Aversion therapy (AKA "aversive conditioning")

Back 374

form of behavior therapy in which the client is trained to associate physical or psychological discomfort with behaviors, thoughts, or situations the client wants to stop or avoid

Front 375

systematic desensitization

Back 375

response that results in the removal of an ongoing event, or prevents a future event from occurring

Front 376

Escape response

Back 376

terminate aversive (unpleasant) stimulus

Front 377

Avoidance response

Back 377

avoid unpleasant stimulus

Front 378

successive approximations

Back 378

process utilized in shaping; EX: to train a rat to perform a complex behavior, you first get the rat to perform a simple behavior that is the first in the chain, reward that, then the next behavior is rewarded, etc. until the entire behavior is learned.

Front 379

Skinner box

Back 379

created by Behaviorist B.F. Skinner to perform operant conditioning experiments. Enables experimenter to reward and punish animal after operants (behaviors)

Front 380

overjustification effect

Back 380

the effect whereby giving someone an incentive (monetary or otherwise) to do something that they already enjoy doing decreases their intrinsic motivation to do it.

Front 381

modeling

Back 381

a form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual.

Front 382

Bobo doll studies

Back 382

onducted by Albert Bandura in 1961 and studied patterns of behaviour associated with aggression.

Front 383

Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory

Back 383

assumes three different memory systems: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

Front 384

chunking

Back 384

grouping information into meaningful units; expands the capacity of short-term memory beyond seven unrelated bits of information

Front 385

short term memory

Back 385

Temporarily holds information that you are currently thinking about or are aware of; Limit to the amount of information it can hold, and it only lasts about 30 seconds; Capacity of between 5 and 9 digits

Front 386

long term memory

Back 386

permanent memory storage; Virtually no limit to how much we can store; Can last from a few minutes to a lifetime; best to use "elaborative rehearsal" to store in this memory

Front 387

encoding

Back 387

transforming information into a form that you can store in your memory

Front 388

storage

Back 388

process of retaining or storing information in memory to use later;

Front 389

retrieval

Back 389

process of recovering information stored in our memory to our working memory

Front 390

semantic encoding

Back 390

Getting verbal information into memory by translating it into a memory code consisting of the meanings of the letters and/or words. EX: encode "hay key pig dog" with "Hey, give me my key, PIG DOG!"

Front 391

acoustic encoding

Back 391

the encoding of sound, espeically the sound of words

Front 392

visual encoding

Back 392

the processing of images

Front 393

Interference theory

Back 393

The idea that people forget information because of competition from other material.

Front 394

Broadbent filter theory of memory

Back 394

inputs are analyzed for each stage of memory and most filtered out; only the most important are encoded

Front 395

Proactive interference

Back 395

when old material gets in the way with learning new information (your old phone number keeps confusing you as you try to learn your new phone number).

Front 396

Retroactive interference

Back 396

when the new information now gets in the way with remembering old stuff

Front 397

Flashbulb Memory

Back 397

A clear memory of an emotionally significant event or memory.

Front 398

Sensory Memory

Back 398

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Front 399

Working Memory

Back 399

A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial info, and of info retrieved from long-term memory.

Front 400

Automatic Processing

Back 400

Unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meanings.

Front 401

Spacing Effect

Back 401

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better longterm retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Opposite of cramming.)

Front 402

Serial Position Effect

Back 402

Our tendency to best recall the last and first items in a list.

Front 403

Mnemonics

Back 403

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Front 404

maintenance rehearsal

Back 404

repeating info mentally or verbally to maintain in short-term memory; EX: repeating phone number to yourself until you dial

Front 405

elaborative rehearsal

Back 405

involves deep sematic processing of a to-be-remembered item resulting in the production of durable memories. EX: creating an interpretive dance on the meaning of elaborative rehearsal; you'd never forget it.

Front 406

Intrinsic Motivation

Back 406

A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Front 407

Extrinsic Motivation

Back 407

A desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment.

Front 408

Flashbulb Memory

Back 408

A clear memory of an emotionally significant event or memory.

Front 409

Sensory Memory

Back 409

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

Front 410

Automatic Processing

Back 410

Unconscious encoding of incidental info, such as space, time, frequency, and of well-learned info, such as word meanings.

Front 411

Spacing Effect

Back 411

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better longterm retention than is achieved through massed study or practice. (Opposite of cramming.)

Front 412

Serial Position Effect

Back 412

Our tendency to best recall the last and first items in a list.

Front 413

Mnemonics

Back 413

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Front 414

Iconic Memory.

Back 414

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

Front 415

Echoic Memory

Back 415

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

Front 416

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

Back 416

Prolongued strengthening of potential neural firing. Neural basis for learning and remembering associations.

Front 417

Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory

Back 417

Retention independent of conscious recollection; you can't declare info, but it affects your behavior; EX: can't verbally list bottom row of letters on keyboard, but can type just fine

Front 418

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Back 418

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare."

Front 419

Priming

Back 419

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associationgs in memory. (Ex: Say stop ten times... Now, what do you do at a green light?)

Front 420

Decay theory

Back 420

The idea that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time and disuse

Front 421

motivated forgetting

Back 421

Forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect your self from material that is too painful; Suppression = consciously forgetting; Repression = forgetting occurs unconsciously

Front 422

encoding failure

Back 422

Memory was never put in long-term memory and therefore can not be recalled or recognized; You did not forget it; you never stored it in the first place

Front 423

positive transfer

Back 423

having learned one instrument helps you learn another. this is called?

Front 424

negative transfer

Back 424

The interference of previous learning in the process of learning something new, such as switching from an old manual typewriter to a computer keyboard.

Front 425

retrieval failure

Back 425

"“Tip of the tongue” phenomenon; you are sure that you know the information, but you cannot quite put your hands on it.

Front 426

anterograde amnesia

Back 426

a disorder caused by brain damage that disrupts a person's ability to form new long-term memories of events that occur after the time of the brain damage

Front 427

retrograde amnesia

Back 427

Loss of memories for events that occurred prior to a head injury.

Front 428

abstract learning

Back 428

learning in which the relationship between and among stiuli is more important than the physcal feautres of the stimuli

Front 429

misinformation effect

Back 429

Phenomenon in which people’s existing memories can be altered by exposing them to misleading information

Front 430

source confusion

Back 430

Memory distortion that occurs when the true source of the memory is forgotten

Front 431

schema distortion

Back 431

False memories are caused by the tendency to fill in missing memory details with information that is consistent with existing knowledge about a topic

Front 432

imagination inflation

Back 432

Phenomenon in which vividly remembering an event increases our confidence that the event actually occurred

Front 433

encoding specificity principle

Back 433

Principle that when conditions of when the information was encoded are similar to when the information is retrieved, we are more likely to be able to retrieve the information

Front 434

State-Dependent Memory Effect (AKA "mood congruence")

Back 434

Idea that a given mood tends to evoke memories consistent with that mood

Front 435

context effect

Back 435

Tendency to remember information more easily if you are in the same setting as when you learned the information

Front 436

Levels of Processing Framework

Back 436

The level at which information can be processed determines how well the information will be encoded and later retrieved; Information processed at a “deeper” level is more likely to be retrieved

Front 437

Ivan Pavlov

Back 437

Russian scientist that founded classical conditioning; did not consider himself psychologist

Front 438

B.F. Skinner

Back 438

father of operant conditioning, leading behaviorist

Front 439

John Watson

Back 439

father of behaviorism

Front 440

Albert Bandura

Back 440

father of observational learning and publishes social learning theory; Bobo doll experiment

Front 441

Herman Ebbinghaus

Back 441

early pioneer of research on memory. He was a brilliant researcher and most of what we know about memory came from his early work. Among other stuff he developed something known as the "retention curve" or "forgetting curve". H

Front 442

George Sperling

Back 442

documented the existence of iconic memory (one of the sensory memory subtypes).

Front 443

Elizabeth Loftus

Back 443

an American psychologist who works on human memory and how it can be changed by facts, ideas, suggestions and other forms of post-event information.

Front 444

Charles Sherrington

Back 444

won the Nobel Prize in 1932, for "discoveries regarding the functions of neurons"; coined the words 'neuron' and 'synapse'

Front 445

Roger Sperry

Back 445

conducted split-brain experiments (corpus callosum cut) in 1960s and found that the human brain has specialized functions on the right and left, and that the two sides can operate practically independently.

Front 446

algorithm

Back 446

problem-solving strategy that involves a slow, step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution to certain types of problems

Front 447

heuristic

Back 447

quick and easy mental "rules of thumb" (strategies) that we employ to make quick and speedy decisions or judgements; usually speedier but also more error-prone.

Front 448

insight

Back 448

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions; rarely happens without a lot of previous work

Front 449

prototype

Back 449

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to this provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category

Front 450

basic-level category

Back 450

a concept that makes important distinctions between different categories - between a superordinate and subordinate category

Front 451

brainstorming

Back 451

a popular technique practiced during creative problem-solving that encourages the generation of many ideas in a nonjudgmental environment

Front 452

cognition

Back 452

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, and remembering information

Front 453

fixation

Back 453

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem solving.

Front 454

mental set

Back 454

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, especially a way that has been successful in the past but may or may not be helpful in solving a new problem.

Front 455

functional fixedness

Back 455

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving.

Front 456

representative heuristic

Back 456

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information.

Front 457

availability heuristic

Back 457

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind, we presume such events are common.

Front 458

overconfidence

Back 458

the tendency to be more confident than correct - to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

Front 459

framing

Back 459

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Front 460

belief bias

Back 460

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid, or valid conclusions seem invalid.

Front 461

belief perseverance

Back 461

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed have been discredited.

Front 462

artificial intelligence (AI)

Back 462

the science of designing and programing computer systems to do intelligent things and to simulate human thought processes, such as intuitive reasoning, learning, and understanding language.

Front 463

computer neural networks

Back 463

computer circuits that mimic the brain's interconnected neural cells, performing tasks such as learning to recognize visual patterns and smells.

Front 464

central route of persuasion

Back 464

in the elaboration likelihood model, requires a person to think critically about an argument; usually results in more stable change of attitudes

Front 465

cognitive dissonance

Back 465

according to Festinger, the theory that changes in attitudes can be motivated by an unpleasant state of tension caused by a disparity between a person's beliefs or attitudes and behavior

Front 466

cognitive illusion

Back 466

systematic way of thinking that is responsible for an error in judgment

Front 467

cognitive learning

Back 467

a type of learning that involves mental events, problem solving, and rule formation

Front 468

cognitive maps

Back 468

a mental picture of the layout of one's environment

Front 469

cognitive restructuring

Back 469

cognitive therapy in which clients discuss their fears and are led to change their attitudes and beliefs about the situations that frighten them

Front 470

cognitive therapy

Back 470

therapy that teaches people more adaptive ways of thinking and acting in order to eliminate maladaptive thinking and emotional reactions

Front 471

cognitive triad

Back 471

Beck's cognitive therapy, which looks at what a person thinks about his/her Self, World, and Future

Front 472

Phonemes

Back 472

sets of basic sounds (in fact, the smallest set of sounds) that are the building blocks to all spoken language. Unlike morphemes, phonemes are not units of speech that convey meaning when used in isolation

Front 473

Morphemes

Back 473

The smallest units of speech that convey meaning. All words are composed of at least one morpheme. For example, the word "work" is a single morpheme, but the word "working", which implies some action, is made up of two morphemes

Front 474

grammar

Back 474

The study of structural relationships in language or in a language, sometimes including pronunciation, meaning, and linguistic history.

Front 475

semantics

Back 475

the study of meaning in language

Front 476

syntax

Back 476

The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences.

Front 477

babbling

Back 477

a stage of speech development that is characterized by spontaneous utterance of speech sounds; begins around 4 months of age

Front 478

holophrastic speech

Back 478

ONE-WORD STAGE: (+/- 12-14 months) -the words produced are not just any words. For example you get: cookie drink bad fast go yes/no But never: *in *the *and

Front 479

telegraphic speech

Back 479

a form of communication consisting of simple two-word, noun-verb sentences that adhere to the grammatical standards of the culture's language. EX: child would say "Give cupcake" rather than "Cupcake give".

Front 480

critical period

Back 480

the idea that the first few years of life is the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If this period is missed, person will never develop full language, especially grammar

Front 481

Noam Chomsky

Back 481

credited with the creation of the theory of generative grammar, which helped to spark the cognitive revolution in psychology through his review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior, in which he challenged the behaviorist approach

Front 482

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (AKA "linguistic relativity")

Back 482

postulates a systematic relationship between the grammatical categories of the language a person speaks and how that person both understands the world and behaves in it.

Front 483

(mental age/chronological age) X 100

Back 483

IQ equation

Front 484

Stanford-Binet Test

Back 484

First IQ test; The Stanford-Binet started with the French psychologist Alfred Binet who was charged by the French government with developing a method of identifying intellectually deficient children for placement in special education programs.

Front 485

mental age

Back 485

was developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed this term which refers to the chronological age typical of a given performance

Front 486

Flynn effect

Back 486

the rise of average IQ test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates, that has been continuous and roughly linear from the earliest days of testing to the present.

Front 487

Charles Spearman

Back 487

Believed that intelligence is composed of a general ability (g factor), which is responsible for performance on tests of intelligence and ability

Front 488

Howard Gardner

Back 488

Believes that mental abilities are independent of one another and can not be defined by one single measure; Multiple intelligences, which are all equally important

Front 489

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Back 489

argues that there are three primary components to intelligence: analytical, practical, creative. If you have all three you have "successful intelligence"

Front 490

analytical

Back 490

one of the three parts of Sternberg's triarchich theory of intelligence; is similar to what is tested by traditional IQ tests and what we are asked to do in school: compare, contrast, analyze, and figure out cause - effect relationships

Front 491

creative intelligence

Back 491

part of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory; Excel in creative thinking and problem solving; Ability to deal with novel situations; Finding creative ways to perform daily tasks more efficiently without much effort

Front 492

practical intelligence

Back 492

part of Sternberg's Triarchic Theory; Common sense or “street smarts”; Ability to adapt to the environment

Front 493

Daniel Goleman

Back 493

came up with theory of "emotional intelligence" which is the knowledge and ability to manage our emotions, respond appropriately to situations and the ability to make sound emotional decisions. Believes is very important in making good decisions

Front 494

David Wechsler

Back 494

best known for his WAIS and WISC intelligence tests. The tests are still based on his philosophy that intelligence is "the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with [one's] environment"

Front 495

Francis Galton

Back 495

early English scientist. Helped develop the first personality tests, developing the science of eugenics (better humans through breeding), using statistics in research, arguing that nature is more important in personality than nurture.

Front 496

savant syndrome

Back 496

describes an individual with a cognitive deficit of some sort (ranging in type and severity) who has one or more areas of expertise/ability that is at a genius level.

Front 497

achievement tests

Back 497

tests that measure our current mastery of a subject or specific program of study

Front 498

aptitude tests

Back 498

test that measures what our potential should be and whether or not we will benefit from some training; predicts our future capacity to learn and develop

Front 499

standardization

Back 499

Tests must be given to a large number of subjects that are representative of the group under uniform conditions (same directions given, same amount of time given)

Front 500

Normal Distribution

Back 500

Frequency distribution with the shape of a normal curve ( a symmetrical bell shaped curve)

Front 501

Reliability

Back 501

extent to which test yields constant results, as assessed by consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, on alt forms of the test, or on retesting

Front 502

Validity

Back 502

extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Front 503

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

Back 503

a general test of intelligence (IQ), most widely used IQ test today; broken down into 14 sub tests, comprising the verbal (seven sub tests) and performance scales (seven sub tests).

Front 504

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

Back 504

developed by David Wechsler, is an intelligence test for children between the ages of 6 and 16 inclusive that can be completed without reading or writing. The WISC generates an IQ score.

Front 505

heritability

Back 505

a measure of the relative contribution of genes to the variation of a phenotype on a given group in a specific environment. Throughout the developed world, the _______ of IQ is around three quarters

Front 506

cultural bias

Back 506

It is extremely difficult to develop a test that measures innate intelligence without introducing _____ This has been virtually impossible to achieve. One attempt was to eliminate language and design tests with demonstrations and pictures.

Front 507

Lewis Terman

Back 507

Revised Binet's original work to create "Stanford-Binet" test, as an aid for developmentally disabled children. It is now used today, despite varying degrees of controversy, as a general intelligence test for adults

Front 508

Arthur Jensen

Back 508

a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature versus nurture debate, the position that concludes genetics play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as intelligence and personality.

Front 509

motivation

Back 509

Biological, emotional, cognitive, and social forces that drive our behavior

Front 510

emotion

Back 510

a resoponse of the whole organism, involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience

Front 511

Instinct Theory

Back 511

States that people are motivated by innate, or unlearned instincts that are shared by all individuals

Front 512

Drive-Reduction Theory

Back 512

The idea that physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Front 513

Homeostasis

Back 513

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Front 514

Incentive

Back 514

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Front 515

Hierarchy of Needs

Back 515

(Humanistic theory) Maslow's pyramind of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Front 516

Set Point

Back 516

The point at which a person's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Front 517

affiliation motive

Back 517

the need to be with others

Front 518

arousal

Back 518

level of alertness, wakefulness and activation caused by activity in the central nervous system; optimal level varies with the person and the activity

Front 519

achievement motive

Back 519

the desire to accomplish something, to excel, or to reach a standard of excellence

Front 520

evolutionary theory

Back 520

the process of change in the inherited traits of a population of organisms from one generation to the next. differences accumulate with each subsequent generation and can, over time, cause substantial changes in the organisms.

Front 521

james-lange theory

Back 521

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of physiological response emotion arousing stimuli feeling fear follows the body's response

Front 522

cannon-bard theory

Back 522

the theory that an emotion arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological response, and subjective experience of emotion (body's response begins as you experience fear, one does not cause the other)

Front 523

two-factor theory

Back 523

schachter-singer's theory that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal

Front 524

arousal theory (Yerkes-Dodson Law)

Back 524

States people are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal (both low and high levels are unpleasant); If the arousal is less than the level that we want it at, we do something to stimulate it

Front 525

physiological factors behind hunger motivation:

Back 525

Usually unpleasant feeling originates in the hypothalamus and is released through receptors in the liver. increased by lower blood sugar levels, stomach contractions, desire to eat

Front 526

glucose

Back 526

the form of sugar that circulates the blood and provides the major source of energy for the body tissue

Front 527

insulin

Back 527

increases diminish blood sugar--which causes to feel hungry

Front 528

orexin

Back 528

lateral hypothalamus brings on hunger and secretes hunger, which triggers the hormone

Front 529

ventromedial hypothalamus

Back 529

depresses hunger

Front 530

ghrelin

Back 530

a hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomch

Front 531

PYY

Back 531

suppresses appetite and makes you feel full

Front 532

basal metabolic rate

Back 532

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

Front 533

anorexia nervosa

Back 533

eating disorder most common in the adolescent female, characterized by weight less than 85% of normal, abnormally restrictive food consumption, and an unrealistic body image that she is still fat

Front 534

bulimia nervosa

Back 534

an eating disorder characterized by a pattern of eating binges involving intake of thousands of calories, followed by purging, either by vomiting or using laxatives

Front 535

sexual orientation

Back 535

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of eithr one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Front 536

bisexuality

Back 536

a tendency to direct sexual desire toward people of both sexes

Front 537

androgyny

Back 537

the presence of desirable masculine and feminine characteristics in one individual

Front 538

sexual response cycle

Back 538

the four stages of sexual responding described by william masters and virginia johnson- excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

Front 539

excitement phase

Back 539

genital areas become engorged w/ blood, a woman's vagina expands and secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge

Front 540

plateau phase

Back 540

excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase. the penis becomes fully engorged and some fulid-frequently containing enough live sperm to enable conception, may appear at its tip. vaginal secretion continues to increase, the clitoris retracts, and organsm feels imminent

Front 541

orgasm

Back 541

same feeling in men and women; muscle contractions are experienced all over th ebody, accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure

Front 542

resolution phase

Back 542

the body gradually returns to its unaroused state as teh engorged genital blood vessels release their acculmulated blood--relatively quickly if orgasm has occured, relatively slowly otherwise. male enters a refractory period during this phase

Front 543

refractory phase

Back 543

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm. the female's much shorter refractory period may enable her to have another orgasm if restimulated during or soon after resolution

Front 544

sexual disorders

Back 544

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal and functioning-- premature ejaculation, erectile disorder, orgasmic disorder

Front 545

problems w/ sexual motivation

Back 545

lack of sexual energy and arousablility

Front 546

erectile disorder

Back 546

men- inability to have or mainitain an erection

Front 547

orgasmic disorder (women)

Back 547

infrequently or never experiencing orgasm

Front 548

estrogen

Back 548

a sex hormone secreted in greater amounts by females that by males. in nonjuman femal mammals, estorgen levels peak during ovulation, promotion sexual receptivity

Front 549

testosterone

Back 549

the most important of the male sex hormones. both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimultes the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Front 550

flow

Back 550

a completely involved, focused state of cosciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills

Front 551

spillover effect

Back 551

when arousal lingers from one event and spills over into the response to the next even (after exercising and irritating event can make a person react with more anger than usual because of the heightened arousal of working out

Front 552

polygraph

Back 552

a machine commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascual and breathign changes)

Front 553

empathy

Back 553

you identify with others and imagine what it must be like to walk in thier shoes

Front 554

facial feedback hypothesis

Back 554

expressions not only communicate emotion, they also amplify and regulate it (james laird)

Front 555

behavior feedback hypothesis

Back 555

if we move our body as we would when experiencing some emotion, we are liekly to feel that emotion to some degree

Front 556

fear

Back 556

alarm system that prepares body to flee from danger

Front 557

conditioning

Back 557

"learning fear- experience

Front 558

observation

Back 558

"learning fear- watching

Front 559

anterior cingulated cortex

Back 559

sends input from amygdala that associates fears w/ certain situations

Front 560

amygdala

Back 560

remembers conditioning (knows they should be afraid) but shows no emotional response

Front 561

hippocampus

Back 561

shows the conditioned emotion but does not remeber why

Front 562

phobia

Back 562

intense fear of specific objects

Front 563

catharsis

Back 563

emotional release

Front 564

feel good, do good phenomenon

Back 564

tendency to be helpful when in a good mood

Front 565

subjective well-being

Back 565

self-perceived happiness, used to evaluate quality of life

Front 566

adaptation-level phenomenon

Back 566

our tendency to orm judgements of sounds, lights, incole relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

Front 567

realtive deprivaion

Back 567

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

Front 568

Kinsey report

Back 568

late 1940s, 1950s; conducted largest ever study on sexual behavior; astounded the general public and was immediately controversial and sensational. Criticized since couldn't get random or representative sample

Front 569

Primary Sex Characteristics

Back 569

Men and women both have have hair on our heads, our face, etc. However, primary sex characteristics are body structures that are specific to sex. Females have ovaries whereas men have testes. These are primary sex characteristics because they are specific to the sex of the person (men typically don't have ovaries) and are related to reproduction.

Front 570

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Back 570

These are the physical features other than reproductive organs that distinguish men from women. Unlike primary sex characteristics which are the main sex-specific reproductive organs (i.e., ovaries and testes), secondary sex characteristics are nonreporductive sexual characteristics such as breasts (on females) and an adam's apple on men.

Front 571

Gender Identity

Back 571

Gender identity is one's own perception or sense of being male or female. Please do not confuse this with sexual orientation (as heterosexual or homosexual) or the strength of one's gender-typing; it is just a person's own knowledge and feelings of being a male or female.

Front 572

industrial organizational psychology (I/O)

Back 572

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimize human behavior in workplaces

Front 573

personnel psychology

Back 573

a subfield of I/O that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

Front 574

organizational psychology

Back 574

a subfield of I/O psychology that examines organizational influneces on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational chance

Front 575

structured interviews

Back 575

interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

Front 576

task leadership

Back 576

goal oriented leadership that sets standars, organizes work, and focueses attenetion on goals

Front 577

social leadership

Back 577

ground oriented leadership that builds teamwork, medites conflict, and offers support

Front 578

engaged

Back 578

working w/ passion and feeling a prfound connection to their company or organization

Front 579

not-engaged

Back 579

putting in the time, but investing little passion or energy into their work

Front 580

actively disengaged

Back 580

unhappy workers undermining what their colleagues accomplish

Front 581

self-esteem

Back 581

a gauge of how valued and accepted we feel

Front 582

affiliate

Back 582

to feel connected and to identify with others

Front 583

ostracism

Back 583

social exclusion

Front 584

anterior cingulated cortex

Back 584

part of the brain that controls both physical and social pain

Front 585

personal psychologists

Back 585

work with organizations to devise selection methods for new employees and their recruit and evaluate training programs

Front 586

interviewer illusion

Back 586

a feeling of overconfidence in one's intuitive ability to predict employee success

Front 587

halo errors

Back 587

judgments based on personal qualitites rath thatn on the job behavior

Front 588

leniency/ severity errors

Back 588

blanket judgments treating everone too kindly or harshly

Front 589

recency errors

Back 589

judgments based on easily remembered recent behavior

Front 590

higher profits, higher productivity, lower turnover, and loyal customer productivity

Back 590

research shows that the most productive and engaged workers are those working in satisfying environments. employee satisfaction also tend to translate into those

Front 591

Theory X Managers

Back 591

management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can. Need for close supervision of employees; who will only work harder for selfish reasons

Front 592

Theory Y Managers

Back 592

assumes employees may be ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to accept greater responsibility, and exercise self-control, self-direction, autonomy and empowerment. Looks for ways to encourage employee creativity

Front 593

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

Back 593

a disorder of permanent birth defects that occurs in the offspring of women who drink alcohol during pregnancy. Can stunt fetal growth or weight, create distinctive facial stigmata, and cause brain damage

Front 594

age of viability

Back 594

the end of the second trimester in pregnancy; the point at which there is a chance the fetus will survive if born prematurely

Front 595

blastula

Back 595

the hollow ball stage of cell division during the first 2 weeks after conception

Front 596

The process by which children learn the behaviors, attitudes, and expectations required of them by their society or culture.

Back 596

What is *Socialization*?

Front 597

The sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behavior and physical characteristics.

Back 597

*Maturation* is:

Front 598

1. The Germinal, 2. Embryonic, 3. Fetal

Back 598

Prenatal Development is divided into *what* sections:

Front 599

At conception, the sperm uniting with the egg; the fertilized single-cell egg is called a ZYGOTE.

Back 599

The *Germinal Stage* begins:

Front 600

and lasting until the eighth week of conception at which point the embryo is only 1 1/2 inches in length.

Back 600

The *embryonic stage* begins:

Front 601

After 8 weeks, the Fetus further develops the organs and systems that existed in rudimentary form in the embryonic stage.

Back 601

The *Fetal Stage* begins:

Front 602

In primates, the innate pleasure derived from close physical contact; it is the basis of an infants first attachment.

Back 602

What is * Contact Comfort*?

Front 603

The distress that most children develop, at about 6 - 8 months of age, when their primary care-givers temporarily leave them with strangers.

Back 603

What is *Separation Anxiety*?

Front 604

The distress that most children develop, at about 6 - 8 months of age, when their primary care-givers temporarily leave them with strangers.

Back 604

What is *Separation Anxiety*?

Front 605

A child's first word combinations, which omit unnecessary words.

Back 605

Waht is *telegraphic speech*?

Front 606

A system of beliefs about the way one's own mind and the minds of others work, and how cognitions and feelings effect behavior.

Back 606

What is *Theory of Mind*?

Front 607

A method of child rearing in which the parent uses punishment and authority to correct the child's misbehavior.

Back 607

What is *Power Assertion*?

Front 608

A method of child rearing in which the parent appeals to the child's own resources, abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting the child's misbehavior.

Back 608

What is *Induction*?

Front 609

The fundamental sense of being male or female; it is independent of whether the person conforms to the social and cultural rules of gender.

Back 609

What is *Gender Identity*?

Front 610

The process by which children learn the abilities, interests, personality traits, and behaviors associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture.

Back 610

What is *Gender Typing*

Front 611

A cognitive schema (mental network) of knowledge, beliefs, metaphors, and expectations about what it means to be male or female.

Back 611

What is *Gender Schema*?

Front 612

The age at which a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction.

Back 612

*Puberty* is?

Front 613

The onset of menstruation.

Back 613

What is *Menarche [men-ARR-kee]*?

Front 614

The process by which members of minority groups come to identify with and fell part of the mainstream culture.

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What is *Ethnic Identity*?

Front 615

The process by which members of minority groups come to identify with and fell part of the mainstream culture.

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What is *Ethnic Identity*?

Front 616

The process by which members of minority groups come to identify with and fell part of the mainstream culture.

Back 616

What is *Ethnic Identity*?

Front 617

The cessation of menstruation and of the production of ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several years.

Back 617

What is *Menopause*?

Front 618

The capacity for deductive reasoning and the ability to use new information to solve problems; it is relatively independent of education and tends to decline in old age.

Back 618

What is *Fluid Intelligience*

Front 619

Cognitive skills and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; it is heavily dependent on education and tends to remain stable over the lifetime.

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What is *Crystallized Intelligience*?

Front 620

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

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influential developmental theory concerned the growth of intelligence, meaning the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of concepts grounded in the world.

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sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational

Back 621

What are the stages of cognitive development in Piaget's theory?

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Sensorimotor Stage

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In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years old) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

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Preoperational Stage

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In Piaget's theory, the stage (age 2 to 6 or 7) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

Front 624

Concrete Operational Stage

Back 624

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (ages 6-7 to 11) during which children gain mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

Front 625

Formal Operational Stage

Back 625

In Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (age 12 and up) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.

Front 626

Temperament

Back 626

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

Front 627

In Piaget's's theory, the process of absorbing new information into existing cognitive structures.

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What is *Assimilation*?

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In Piaget's theory, the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experience and new information.

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What is *Accomodation*?

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The understanding, which develops throughout the first year, that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see or touch it.

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What is *Object Permanence*?

Front 630

mental actions that are cognitively reversible.

Back 630

In Piaget's theory, *operations* are:

Front 631

Seeing the world from only your own point of view; the inability to take another person's perspective.

Back 631

What is *Egocentric Thinking*?

Front 632

The understanding that the physical properties of objects - such as the number of items in a cluster or the amount of liquid in a glass - can remain the same even when their form or appearance changes.

Back 632

What is *Conservation*?

Front 633

schema

Back 633

An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or sequence of events.

Front 634

animism

Back 634

belief of a preoperational child that all htings are living just like him or her, according to Piaget

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irreversibility

Back 635

Child can not mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations back to the starting point; part of preoperational stage

Front 636

artificialism

Back 636

the belief of the preoperational child that all objects are made by people

Front 637

Lawrence Kohlberg

Back 637

important American psychologist who pioneered the study of moral reasoning in response to dilemma. He developed his three basic levels of moral reasoning: Preconventional, Conventional and Postconventional level.

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Preconventional Morality

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Moral reasoning based on self-interest; Avoiding punishment and maximizing personal gains; EX: I will not run in the street because I will get in trouble

Front 639

Conventional Morality:

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People approach moral problems as members of society; Interested in pleasing others by acting like a good member of the society; “Good Boy” morality; People respect others by doing what is expected of them

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Postconventional Morality:

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moral reasoning, universal ethics principles, justice; EX: Ghandi

Front 641

Erik Erikson

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"developed Theory of Psychosocial Development; Believed that people progress through 8 psychosocial stages during life span

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trust vs. mistrust; Erikson considered basic trust to be the cornerstone of a healthy personality; Babies who are not securely attached to their mothers are less cooperative and more aggressive in their interactions in the future

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Oral-sensory stage of Erikson's theory

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If children at this stage are overprotected they may begin to feel shame and begin to doubt themselves"

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Muscular-anal stage of Erikson's theory

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initiative vs. guilt; Preschool children need to realize that they their own person that is able to make decisions that will affect the person that they will become

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Locomotor-genital stage of Erikson's theory

Front 645

It is critical that during this time, children gain competence in meeting challenges and keep up with peers"

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Latency stage of Erikson's theory

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identity vs. role confusion; Adolescents must make the transition from childhood to adulthood, establish and identity, develop a sense of self, and consider a future occupational identity; try out various roles to discover who they are

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Puberty-adolescence stage of Erikson's theory

Front 647

intimacy vs. isolation; Focus developing close, intimate relationships with others; Erikson believed that people that struggled with this stage are often lonely, isolated and fearful of relationships with others

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Young adulthood stage of Erikson's theory

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Generativity refers to an individual’s contribution to family, the community and society as a whole"

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Adulthood stage of Erikson's theory

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ego integrity vs. despair; This is the process of looking over your life, evaluating it, and coming to terms with it; When people achieve integrity, they feel satisfied with what they have accomplished and have few regrets

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Old age stage of Erikson's theory

Front 650

attachment

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a close emotional bond or relationship between the infant and the caregiver

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Attachment theory

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attempt to explain the almost universal human tendency to prefer certain familiar companions over other people, especially in circumstances where the person choosing companions is ill, injured, or distressed in some other way.

Front 652

stranger anxiety

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this term refers to a developmental situation in which infants become anxious and fearful around strangers. This usually occurs around 8 months of age and includes outward, fearful behaviors by the child including crying, recoiling, clinging, etc.

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Imprinting

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of immediate bonding that animals exhibit the moment they are born. Baby ducks, for example, will imprint on the first moving object. Usually it's their mother, but it could be another animal or the animal handler

Front 654

Mary Ainsworth (Strange Situation Assessment)

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Research that studied the strength of attachment between a child and her mother; Mom and baby enters an unfamiliar room with a variety of toys, the mom leaves with a stranger, comes back, and then leaves and comes back; gauge child's reaction

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secure attachment pattern (~2/3 of babies)

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"Mother is used as sort of a home base; Child at ease when the mother is there and after the mother leaves the child is not really upset

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avoidant attachment pattern (20% of babies)

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infant neither seeks support or comfort from nor shows distress towards caregivers in the Strange situation

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ambivalent attachment pattern (~12%)

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"Child show both positive and negative reactions to the mother

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Jerome Kagan

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is one of the key pioneers of developmental psychology; he has shown that an infant's "temperament" is quite stable over time, in that certain behaviors in infancy are predictive of certain other behavior patterns in adolescence.

Front 659

Harry Harlow

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an American psychologist best known for his maternal-deprivation and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which demonstrated the importance of care-giving and companionship in the early stages of primate development.

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Maccoby and Jacklin study

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study that found the following differences between and females: Males are more aggressive than females; Females have more verbal ability than males, while males have better visuo-spatial skills.

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Bio-social theory

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a theory in behavioral and social science that suggests the attribution of disorders of personality and conditions of mind to the reaction of biologically determined personality traits to environmental stimuli

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Social-learning theory

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a theory to explain how people learn behavior. People learn through observing others' behavior. If people observe positive, desired outcomes in the observed behavior, they are more likely to model, imitate, and adopt the behavior themselves.

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Gender-schema theory

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Refers to the theory that children learn about what it means to be male and female from the culture in which they live. According to this theory, children adjust their behavior to fit in with the gender norms and expectations of their culture.

Front 664

Nature/Nurture

Back 664

debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities (i.e. nativism, or philosophical empiricism, innatism) versus personal experiences (the environment) in determining or causing individual differences in physical and behavioral traits.

Front 665

Authoritarian

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parenting style that sets up absolute and restrictive rules accompanied by punishment for disobedience

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Authoritative

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parenting style that focuses on flexible rules for which reasons are generally given. Parents are warm and nurture independence within guidelines

Front 667

Permissive

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"Parents take a hands off approach; Parents require very little from their children and don’t hold a lot of responsibility for how their children turn out

Front 668

Rejecting-neglecting

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Parents are detached emotionally from their children; Parent’s role is to provide food and shelter; In an extreme form, this type of style can be thought of as neglect

Front 669

adolescence egocentrism

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Difficulty differentiating between one’s own thoughts and feelings and those of other people; Overly concerned with their own thoughts and feelings

Front 670

imaginary audience

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an egocentric state where an individual imagines and believes that multitudes of people are enthusiastically listening to him or her at all times.

Front 671

personal fable

Back 671

A form of adolescent egocentrism that involves thinking that oneself and one’s thoughts and feelings are unique or special

Front 672

Alzheimer’s disease

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a fatal degenerative disease in which brain neurons progressively die, causing loss of memory, reasoning, emotion, control of bodily functions, then death

Front 673

Cohort

Back 673

group of people in one age group

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cohort effect

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observed group differences based on the era when people were born and grew up, exposing them to partiuclar experiences that may affect results of cross-sectional studies

Front 675

cohort sequential

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research design that combines aspects of cross-sectional and logitudinal research to correct for cohort effect

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denial, anger and resentment, bargaining, depression, acceptance.

Back 676

Kübler-Ross’s five stages of dying:

Front 677

Carol Gilligan

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Critiqued Kohlberg's theory, pointed out the male bias in Kohlberg's research and argued that females have different but not inferior means of moral reasoning

Front 678

Sigmund Freud

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Austrian founder of psychoanalytic psychology; believed that the unconscious was the most important element in explaining human behavior;

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personality

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an indiviudal's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

Front 680

psychoanalytic theory

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frued's theory proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality; unconscious region of mind, psychosexual stages. amd defense mechanisms for holding anxiety at bay

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humanistic

Back 681

focused on inner capactites for growth, self fulfillment

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free association

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in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

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psychoanalysis

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fruend's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorder by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

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unconscious

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accordin to tfreud, a reservoir of mothly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. according to contemporary psychologists, info processing of which we are unaware

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preconscious area

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temporarily stores thoughts from unconsicous from which we can retrieve them into conscious awareness

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repress

Back 686

forcibly block from our consciousness because they are too unsettling to acknowldege

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manifest content

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the remembered content of dreams

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latent content

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censored expression of the dreamer's unconsiocus wishes

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id

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contains a respervoir of unconscious psychic enerty that strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drive. operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification

Front 690

ego

Back 690

largely conscious, executive part of the personality that mediates amond the demands of the id, superego, and reality. operates on the reality principle satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain

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superego

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4-5 begins. the part of the personality that represents internalized ideals and provdes standards for judgment and future aspiration

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psychosexual stages

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childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latent, genital) during which the id's pleasure seeking energies focus on distict erogenous zones

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phallic stage

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genital stimulation-unconsiocu sexual desires for their mother and jealousy and hatred for their father, who they consider rival

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oedipus complex

Back 694

boys sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealous and hatred for the rival father

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electra complex

Back 695

girls version of oediups complex

Front 696

indentification process

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children incorporate their parent's values into their developing superegos

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gender identity

Back 697

sense of male or female

Front 698

object relations theorists

Back 698

early childhood relations w parent influcne our developing identity, personaliyt, frailties

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fixation

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a lingering focus on pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

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defense mechanism

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in psychanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsiocusly distorting reality

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repression

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in psychoanalytic thoery, the basic defense mechanism that banished anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness

Front 702

regression

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psychoanalytic defence mechanism in which an indiviual faces w/ anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixated

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denial

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An unconscious defense mechanism characterized by refusal to acknowledge painful realities, thoughts, or feelings.

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sublimation

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A mechanism of ego defence by which energy of the id is directed from a primary, but unacceptable object to one that is socially acceptable.

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reaction formation

Back 705

psychoanalytic defense mechaisn by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. thus, people may express feelings that are opposite of thier anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings

Front 706

projection

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism by which people disguise thairy own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

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rationalization

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defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanation in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

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displacement

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psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threateneing object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet

Front 709

neo-freudians

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pioneering psychoanalysts and physicians who formed an inner circle around freud

Front 710

inferiority compex

Back 710

triggers love and security

Front 711

collective unconscious

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carl jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species

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projective tests

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a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

Front 713

thematic apperception test (TAT)

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a projective test in which pepole express their inner feelings and interests thorugh stores they make up about ambiguous scenes

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Rorschach inkblot test

Back 714

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Herman Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

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implicit learning

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nonconscoius learning

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pleasure principle

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In psychoanalysis, the tendency or drive to achieve pleasure and avoid pain as the chief motivating force in behavior (rules the ID)

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reality principle

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In psychoanalysis, the satisfaction of instinctual needs through awareness of and adjustment to environmental demands. (rules an EGO)

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wish fulfillment

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In psychoanalytic theory, the satisfaction of a desire, need, or impulse through a dream, fantasy, or other exercise of the imagination.

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libido

Back 719

The psychic and emotional energy associated with instinctual biological drives, particularly the sex drive

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Psychosexual Stages of Development:

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"Freud said that the foundations of our personality are shaped in the first 5 years of life, and he also believed that our sexual life begins in infancy

Front 721

Oral (0-2)

Back 721

When sensual pleasure is derived mainly through stimulating the mouth; Conflict in this stage focuses on weaning; Too much or too little stimulation at this stage may result in oral fixation

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Anal (2-4)

Back 722

Freud's second stage of development in which the child receives pleasure from the anal region, especially during elimination. Potential fixations at this stage include anal retentives and anal expulsives

Front 723

Phallic (4-6)

Back 723

sexual energy moves to genital area; boys face oedipal complex, girls electra complex and "penis envy"; To resolve the conflict, the child identifies with the parent, represses sexual desires, which leads to latency period

Front 724

Latency (6-pub.)

Back 724

trauma of oedipal or electra complex leads to repression of sexual desires; children focus on school, friends and hobbies

Front 725

Genital

Back 725

sexual feelings reemerge; if no fixations we develop mature sexual relationships and develop into adults sexually

Front 726

Oral fixation

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If underfed, may become orally obsessed and manipulate others to fulfill his needs rather than maturing to independence. Overfed: child may resist maturing and try to return to that state of dependency through crying and being "needy."

Front 727

anal retentive

Back 727

those who get fixated at anal stage by gaining too much pleasure from withholding feces may display the following traits later in life: orderliness, stubbornness, a compulsion for control.

Front 728

anal expulsive

Back 728

those who get fixated at anal stage by gaining too much pleasure from expellling feces may later display: emotional outbursts, disorganisation, self-confidence, (sometimes) artistic ability, generosity, rebelliousness and general carelessness.

Front 729

Oedipal complex

Back 729

Occurs during phallic stage: the boy wishes to possess his mother and replace his father, who he views as a rival for his mother's affections. Knows dad is too strong, so boy represses desires and imitates dad to vicariously "have" mom

Front 730

Electra complex

Back 730

Occurs during phallic stage: the girl wishes to possess dad and replace mom, who she views as a rival for dad's affections. Knows mom is too strong, so girl represses desires and imitates mom to vicariously "have" dad; develops penis envy

Front 731

penis envy

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refers to the theorized reaction of a girl during her psychosexual development to the realisation that she does not have a penis. Freud considered this realization a defining moment in the development of gender and sexual identity for women.

Front 732

castration complex

Back 732

asserts that small boys, when seeing a girl's genitalia, will falsely assume that the girl had her penis chopped off, probably as punishment for some misbehavior. The boy then becomes anxious lest the same happen to him.

Front 733

Identification

Back 733

refers to what happens when a young boy or girl copies the traits and habits of their same sex parent. Freud felt that a young boy identifies (imitates) with his father and thus emulates his temperament, style, personality and behavior. That's how he "grows up" to become a man. Same for young girls. But this identifying doesn't imply that the child doesn't develop his/her own personality, it's just that they used their parent as their number one model

Front 734

Freudian slip

Back 734

is an error in speech, memory, or physical action that is believed to be caused by the unconscious mind; EX: a man accidentally calling his wife by the name of another woman

Front 735

Carl Jung

Back 735

a Swiss psychiatrist, influential thinker, and founder of analytical psychology. His most notable ideas include the concept of the Jungian archetype, the collective unconscious, archetypes

Front 736

Analytic Psychology

Back 736

refers to the school of psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, Its aim is the understanding and integration of the deep forces and motivations underlying human behaviour

Front 737

personal unconscious

Back 737

Carl Jung's term for the Freudian unconscious, as contrasted with the collective unconscious. Consists of repressed memories, etc., just above the collective unconscious

Front 738

collective unconscious

Back 738

carl jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species; contains archetypes

Front 739

archetypes

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according Jung, a number of universal themes that are part of the collective unconscious, including the anima, animus, Shadow, etc.

Front 740

The Shadow

Back 740

the opposite of the ego image, often containing qualities that the ego does not identify with but possesses nonetheless

Front 741

The Anima

Back 741

the feminine image in a man's psyche; or:

Front 742

The Animus

Back 742

the masculine image in a woman's psyche

Front 743

Alfred Adler

Back 743

founder of Individual Psychology of psychoanalytic school; considered the individual as a complete being; emphasized infant's feelings of inferiority, compensation, and the search for power, as well as the sense of belonging to a collectivity.

Front 744

inferiority complex

Back 744

A persistent sense of inadequacy or a tendency to self-diminishment, sometimes resulting in excessive aggressiveness through overcompensation.

Front 745

Karen Horney (pronounced "horn-eye")

Back 745

Neo-Freudian; studied neurosis, came up with "womb envy" and "coping mechanisms"; pioneer in feminine psychiatry

Front 746

insecurity

Back 746

lack of confidence

Front 747

basic anxiety

Back 747

a term used by the psychologist Karen Horney to explain the ramifications of poor parenting. It is a deep insecurity and fear that have developed in the child because of the way they were treated by their parents.

Front 748

basic evil

Back 748

parental indifference, a lack of warmth and affection in childhood.

Front 749

basic hostility

Back 749

a psychological concept first described by psychoanalyst Karen Horney. It is an effect of Basic Evil. Horney described it as a bad attitude which develops in the child as a result of Basic Evil, such as parental abuse. The child is mistreated and becomes angry, but can do nothing as he is dependent upon the very persons who mistreat him.

Front 750

coping mechanisms

Back 750

Horney believed that problems arise from a failed attempt to deal with anxiety, described patterns of behavior which arise from the attempt to deal with the anxiety: moving towards people, moving against people, moving away from people

Front 751

Abraham Maslow

Back 751

Humanist; developed the theory of human motivation now known as Hierarchy of Needs.

Front 752

Carl Rogers

Back 752

Humanist, developed theory of self-concept, positive regard

Front 753

self-concept

Back 753

A set of perceptions and beliefs that we hold about ourselves; Believed that people are motivated to act according to their self-concept; Develops in early childhood

Front 754

positive regard

Back 754

Sense of being loved and valued by other people, especially by our parents

Front 755

conditioned positive regard

Back 755

Sense that the child is loved only when they are good and behave in a way that is acceptable to the parents; Incongruence arises when the child’s self-concept conflicts with his or her actual experience

Front 756

unconditioned positive regard

Back 756

When a child is unconditionally loved and respected, even if they are not always perfect; Rogers believed that this is the best type of parenting and the one that will contribute to a positive self-concept;

Front 757

terror-management thoery

Back 757

proposes that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protecton against a deeply rooted fear

Front 758

false consensus effect

Back 758

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

Front 759

humanistic psychologists

Back 759

focused on the ways healthy people strive for self-determination and self-realization- studied people thorugh their own self-reported experiences and feelings

Front 760

third-force perspective

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abraham maslow and carl rogers-emphasized human potentioal and seeing the world through the person's eyes

Front 761

self actualization

Back 761

according to maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

Front 762

genuine

Back 762

by being open w/ our feelings, dropping facades, and being transparetnt and self-disclosing

Front 763

acceptiong/ unconditional positive regard

Back 763

an attitude of total acceptabce toward another person

Front 764

empathic

Back 764

sharing and mirroring our feelings and reflecting our meanings

Front 765

self concept

Back 765

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, who am i?

Front 766

trait

Back 766

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel adn act. as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

Front 767

temperament

Back 767

inborn emotional reactivity to the world

Front 768

personality invertories

Back 768

a questionaire often w/ a true false or agree disagree items on which people respond to items desigend to gauge a wide range of feelings and behvaiors; used to assess personality traits

Front 769

minnesota multiphasic personality inventory

Back 769

most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. originally developed to identify emotional disorders

Front 770

empirically derived

Back 770

a test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discrimiate between groups

Front 771

the big 5

Back 771

concientiousness, agreeablesness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion

Front 772

social cognitive perspective

Back 772

bandura- views behavior as influence by the interaction between persons (and their thinking ) and their social context

Front 773

reciprocal determinism

Back 773

the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors

Front 774

personal control

Back 774

oursense of controlling our envirmonment rather than feelings helpless

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external locus of control

Back 775

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate

Front 776

internal locus of control

Back 776

the perception that one controls one's own fate

Front 777

learned helplessness

Back 777

the hopelessness and passive reignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repearted aversive events

Front 778

attributional style

Back 778

attribute poor performance to the lack of ability

Front 779

spotlight effect

Back 779

overestimative others' noticing and evaluation our appearancle, performance, and blunders

Front 780

self reference phenomenon

Back 780

better recall words that relate to onself

Front 781

high self-esteem

Back 781

one's feelings of high or low self worth

Front 782

self serving bias

Back 782

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Front 783

old self

Back 783

people more critical of their distant past selves than of their cuurent selves, even when they have not changed

Front 784

defense self esteem

Back 784

fragile, focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failures and criticism feel treatening. correlates w/ anitsocial and aggressive behavior

Front 785

secure self esteem

Back 785

less fragile, becuase it is less contingent on external evaluations. the feel accepted for who we are, and not for ourlooks, wealth, or acclain, relieves pressures to succeed and enables us to focus beyond ourselves

Front 786

Gordon Allport

Back 786

Trait theorist; first to try to describe fundamental human personality traits; developed ideas of cardinal, central, secondary traits

Front 787

Cardinal trait

Back 787

defining personality characteristic in a small number of us that dominates and shapes our behavior (according to Allport)

Front 788

Central trait

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a general characteristic that shapes much of our behavior (according to Allport)

Front 789

Secondary Trait

Back 789

characteristics present in individuals but not “defining” like a cardinal trait

Front 790

William Sheldon

Back 790

assigned people into three categories of body types in the 1940s: endomorphic, mesomorphic, and ectomorphic. He also assigned personality traits to the body types as well. Most psychologists no longer accept the validity of somatotype theory

Front 791

endomorph

Back 791

fat, soft, and round body types, and their personality was described as relaxed, fond of eating, and sociable.

Front 792

mesomorph

Back 792

muscular, rectangular, strong, and personality-wise were filled with energy, courage, and assertive tendencies.

Front 793

ectomorph

Back 793

thin, long, fragile, as well as brainy, artistic, and introverted; they would think about life, rather than consuming it or acting on it.

Front 794

Hans Eysenck

Back 794

developed Eysenck Personality Inventory, questionnaire designed to examine people’s personalities; 3 essential components of personality: psychoticism, extroversion, and neuroticism (PEN)

Front 795

the myers-briggs type indicatior

Back 795

labels people as feeling or thinking typle- carl jung

Front 796

eysenck personality questionnaire

Back 796

extraverts seeks stimulaiton because normal brain arousal is relatively low/ frontal lobe area in volved in behavior inhibition s less active in extraverts than in introverts

Front 797

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

Back 797

most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still consideered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Front 798

California Psychological Inventory (CPI)

Back 798

is a personality self-report inventory; similar manner to the MMPI, but unlike the MMPI, it is not concerned with maladjustment or clinical diagnosis, but concerned itself with more "normal" aspects of personality.

Front 799

stress

Back 799

causes a person to feel challenged or endangered

Front 800

Type A personalities

Back 800

driven, competitive, rigid, intense, sense of time urgency, elevated feelings of anger and hostility; respond to stress quickly and aggressively; related to stress illnesses (heart disease)

Front 801

Type B personality

Back 801

calm, laid back, easy going

Front 802

approach-approach conflict

Back 802

a conflict in which the individual must choose between two positive stimuli or circumstances

Front 803

approach-avoidance conflict

Back 803

a conflict in which the individual must choose whether or not to choose a circumstance involving a single situmulus that has both positive and negative characteristics

Front 804

avoidance-avoidance conflict

Back 804

a conflict in which the individual must choose between two unattractive stimuli or circumstances

Front 805

double approach-avoidance

Back 805

many options are available but each has positives and negatives; ex: choosing one college out of many that are suitable but not ideal

Front 806

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Back 806

Hans Seyle’s theory; physiological response to stress; alarm: arousal of sympathetic nervous system, resistance: result of parasympathetic rebound, reduces arousal; exhaustion: stressor persists for long periods of time, body’s resources exhausted

Front 807

catastrophes

Back 807

stressors that are unpredictable; large-scale disasters that threaten us

Front 808

medical model

Back 808

focus on brain chemistry, esp. in regard to serotonin and norepinephine; correlation b/t lower than normal activity levels of those neurotransmitters and presence of depression

Front 809

atypical, disturbing, maladaptive, unjustifiable

Back 809

4 criteria for determining if behavior is disorder

Front 810

Rosenhan study

Back 810

1970s visited mental institutions and reported they were hearing voices; all admitted with a preliminary diagnosis of schizophrenia; once inside institution, pseudopatients returned to normal behavior; no staff figured out after 3 wks

Front 811

abnormal behavior

Back 811

behavior which is statistically unusual, maladaptive, and personally distressing to the individual

Front 812

DSM IV

Back 812

APA’s handbook for identification and classification of behavioral abnormalities; contains detailed descriptions of every psychological affliction

Front 813

Anxiety Disorders

Back 813

a category of mental disorders in which extreme anxiety and cause significant disruptions in the person’s cognitive, behavioral or interpersonal functioning

Front 814

anxiety hierarchy

Back 814

a listing of frightening events in increasing order of severity, used in systematic desensitization treatment for phobias

Front 815

anxiolytics

Back 815

anti-anxiety drugs (tranquilizers) such as benzodiazepines, including Librium, Valuim, Xanax, and Buspirone

Front 816

Phobias

Back 816

Characterized by extreme fear of an object or situation that is not harmful under general conditions. EX: agoraphobia, arachnophobia

Front 817

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (ocd)

Back 817

When a person experiences uncontrollable obsessions and to reduce their anxiety they perform compulsions

Front 818

Post-traumatic stress disorder (ptsd)

Back 818

caused by exposure to trauma (ex: war or violence) which leads to recurring thoughts and anxiety linked to trauma; decreased ability to function, detachment from reality; restlessness, irritability, sleep impairment, loss of concentration, nightmares, flashbacks

Front 819

Generalized anxiety disorder (”free-floating anxiety”)

Back 819

marked by ongoing tension, apprehension, and nervousness that does not seem to be linked to any specific trigger or stimulus

Front 820

panic attacks

Back 820

individual feels overwhelming sense of panic, fear, and desire to escape; lasts a few minutes, debilitating; sweating, increased heart rate, paralyzed with fright

Front 821

delusions

Back 821

false beliefs

Front 822

social phobia

Back 822

intense fear associated w/ public setting

Front 823

agoraphobia

Back 823

fear of being in open spaces or public places or other places from which escape is perceived to be difficult

Front 824

Schizophrenia

Back 824

A disease that makes it difficult for a person to tell the difference between real and unreal experiences, to think logically, to have normal emotional responses to others, and to behave normally in social situations

Front 825

disorganized speech

Back 825

found often in disorganized schizophrenia, speech suggestive of thought disorder, manifested by cognitive derailment, loosening of associations, incoherence, or replies that are unrelated to the questions posed

Front 826

psychotic disorder

Back 826

a generic psychiatric term for a mental state often described as involving a "loss of contact with reality." People suffering from it are said to be psychotic.

Front 827

hallucinations

Back 827

seeing, hearing, or sensing something that doesn’t actually exist

Front 828

disorganized behavior

Back 828

A symptom of schizophrenia characterized by disruptions in behavior that are indicative of underlying disruptions in thought processes.

Front 829

delusions of grandeur

Back 829

fake belief that one has fame or power

Front 830

catatonic schizophrenia

Back 830

a psycholtic disorder characterized by bizarre motor behavior, which sometimes takes the form of an immobile stupor and waxy flexibility

Front 831

disorganized schizophrenia

Back 831

type of schizophrenia; symptoms: cognitive and emotional; speech and thought are confused and emotions can be highly childlike or inappropriate

Front 832

paranoid schizophrenia

Back 832

Preoccupation with one or more delusions or frequent auditory hallucinations; None of the following is prominent: disorganized speech, disorganized or catatonic behavior, or flat or inappropriate affect.

Front 833

undifferentiated schizophrenia

Back 833

Catch all category; Show symptoms of schizophrenia, but won’t fit in one category

Front 834

positive symptoms

Back 834

sufferer HAS what a healthy person does NOT have

Front 835

negative symptoms

Back 835

refer to something sufferer LACKS that a healthy person has

Front 836

dopamine hypothesis

Back 836

a model attributing symptoms of schizophrenia to a higher level of dopamine. The theory, however, does not posit dopamine overabundance as a complete explanation for schizophrenia. The theory has been discredited and proven as far too simplistic.

Front 837

catatonic behavior

Back 837

Marked motor abnormalities, generally limited to those occurring as part of a non-organic psychotic disorder.

Front 838

persecutorial delusions

Back 838

feelings of being followed, chased, hunted, etc.

Front 839

”word salad”

Back 839

symptom of schizophrenia; jumbled thinking; victim’s speech is loosely connected and words can be thrown together in odd, nonsensical ways

Front 840

echophraxia

Back 840

associated with schizophrenia; a person mimics behaviors, gestures, or postures of another

Front 841

echolalia

Back 841

associated with schizophrenia; repetition of words

Front 842

Mood Disorders (AKA "affective disorders")

Back 842

disorder characterized by significant shifts or disturbances in mood that affect normal perception, thought, and behavior. EX: depression, bipolar disorder

Front 843

Major depressive disorder

Back 843

o Depression is a strong feeling of sadness. Many people experience depression in response to a loss or sad event. In these cases, an episode of depression usually lasts for six to nine months

Front 844

bipolar disorder

Back 844

characterized by sudden shifts in mood, deep depression and listlessness to extreme euphoria, optimism, and energy; 3 types: severe depression with manic episodes, primarily manic (rare), or normal to manic to depressive

Front 845

Dissociative Disorders

Back 845

aka: multiple personality disorder; rare condition involving existence of 2+ separate personalities housed in one body; identities may or may not be aware of each other

Front 846

dissociative amnesia

Back 846

characterized by large scale memory loss for events or one’s identity; sudden in onset and recovery; associated with injury or highly traumatic incident

Front 847

dissociative fugue

Back 847

“traveling amnesia”; marked by amnesia and physical relocation; complete loss of identity followed by assumption of a new identity

Front 848

cortisol

Back 848

produced by the Zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex (in the adrenal gland). It is a vital hormone that is often referred to as the "stress hormone" as it is involved in the response to stress.

Front 849

cylothymic disorder

Back 849

mood disorder. This disorder is a milder form of bipolar II disorder consisting of recurrent mood disturbances between hypomania and dysthymic mood.

Front 850

dysthymic disorder

Back 850

a mood disorder that falls within the depression spectrum. It is considered a less severe and pervasive condition than major depression.

Front 851

”flight of ideas”

Back 851

a nearly continuous flow of rapid speech that jumps from topic to topic, usually based on discernible associations, distractions, or plays on words, but in severe cases so rapid as to be disorganized and incoherent. Common in mania

Front 852

learned helplessness

Back 852

the feeling of futility and passive resignation that results from inability to avoid repeated aversive events; associated w/ depression

Front 853

Somatoform Disorders

Back 853

Physical symptoms that seem as if they are part of a general medical condition, however no general medical condition, other mental disorder, or substance is present.

Front 854

conversion disorder

Back 854

a condition where patients present with neurological symptoms such as numbness, paralysis, or fits, but where no neurological explanation can be found.

Front 855

hypochondriasis

Back 855

involves a preoccupation with the fear that one has an illness even in the face of medical evidence to the contrary; imagines symptoms and seeks treatment

Front 856

somatization disorder

Back 856

psychological disorders characterized by physical manifestations

Front 857

Autism

Back 857

a severe childhood disorder characterized by language impairment, lack of social responsiveness, and possibly self-injurious behavior

Front 858

Conduct Disorder

Back 858

a psychiatric category to describe a pattern of repetitive behavior where the rights of others or the social norms are violated. Symptoms include verbal and physical aggression, cruel behavior toward people and pets, destructive behavior,

Front 859

AD/HD (Attention deficit/hyperactive disorder)

Back 859

more common among boys; characterized by impulsivity and limited ability to focus on tasks

Front 860

Personality Disorders

Back 860

an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual who exhibits it

Front 861

Paranoid Personality Disorder

Back 861

extreme distrust and suspicion of others

Front 862

Avoidant Personality Disorders

Back 862

excessively sensitive to potential rejection, humiliation; desires acceptance but is socially withdrawn

Front 863

Schizoid

Back 863

poor capacity for forming social relationships; shy, withdrawn behavior; considered “cold”; more common in males

Front 864

Dependent Personality Disorder

Back 864

excessively lacking in self-confidence; subordinates own needs; allows others to make all decisions; more common in females

Front 865

Antisocial Personality Disorder

Back 865

a disorder characterized by a failure to conform to standards of decency; repeated lying and stealing; a failure to sustain lasting, loving relationships; low tolerance of boredom; and a complete lack of guilt

Front 866

Borderline Personality Disorder

Back 866

maladaptive behavior characterized by rapidly shifting and unstable mood, self-concept, and interpersonal relationships, as well as impulsiveness; self-mutiliation other self-destructive habits like drug addiction common

Front 867

Histrionic Personality Disorder

Back 867

marked by an insatiable need and search for attention and a tendency toward highly emotional behavior

Front 868

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Back 868

characterized by self-preoccupation and the need for others to focus on oneself; exaggerated sense of one’s own value and importance

Front 869

active listening

Back 869

Rogers' term for hearing another person with ocmplete attention to what he/she says and means through acknowledging feelings, echoing, restating, and seeking clarification

Front 870

Transference

Back 870

when a client unconsciously starts to relate to his therapist in ways that mimic critical relationships in his life

Front 871

non-directive therapy

Back 871

A technique used in client-centered therapy wherein the client directs him- or herself toward solving his or her own problems, and thus the therapist avoids directing the therapeutic process.

Front 872

Behavior therapy

Back 872

treatment appraoch that uses applications of learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviors

Front 873

behavior modification

Back 873

therapy in which the client selects a goal and, as he/she gets closer to that goal, receives small rewards until finally reaching the intended goal

Front 874

Token economy

Back 874

An operant technique applies to groups, such as classrooms or mental hospital wards, involving the distribution of "tokens" or other indicators of reinforcement contingent on desired behaviors. The tokens can later be exchanged for privileges, food, or other reinforcers.

Front 875

Albert Ellis

Back 875

Pioneered a kind of therapy called "Rational Emotive Therapy." Basically, it's a kind of cognitive therapy that (like Aaron Beck) believes that one's psychological problems stem most likely from illogical, self-defeating and irrational thinking.

Front 876

Aaron Beck

Back 876

American cognitive psychologist, believed one became depressed because of thinking depressing thoughts

Front 877

antidepressant drugs

Back 877

medicines that elevate mood states; three main categories include tricyclics (such as Elavil), MAO inhibitors (such as Nardil), and SSRI inhibitors (such as Prozac).

Front 878

MAO inhibitors

Back 878

a class of powerful antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression, particularly atypical depression, and have also shown efficacy in helping people who want to quit smoking; mop up norepinephrine and seratonin at the synapse

Front 879

Tricyclics (TCA’s)

Back 879

Tricyclic antidepressants are used in numerous applications; mainly indicated for the treatment of clinical depression, neuropathic pain, nocturnal enuresis, and ADHD, but they have also been used successfully for headache (including migraine headache), anxiety, insomnia, smoking cessation, bulimia nervosa, irritable bowel syndrome, narcolepsy, pathological crying or laughing, persistent hiccups, interstitial cystitis, and ciguatera poisoning, and as an adjunct in schizophrenia.; blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine & seratonin at presynaptic (sending) terminals

Front 880

Selective Seratonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRI’s)

Back 880

blocks the reuptake of only seratonin - Prozac

Front 881

Lithium Carbonate

Back 881

a salt used to treat bipolar disorder

Front 882

antipsycholtic drugs

Back 882

powerful medicines that lessen agitated behavior, reduce tension, decrease hallucinations nad delusions, improve social behavior, and produce better sleep behavior, espeically in schizophrenic patients

Front 883

Thorazine

Back 883

relieves positive symptoms, causes tardive dyskinesia

Front 884

Clozaril

Back 884

relieves positive and negative symptoms

Front 885

Anti-anxiety Drugs: (Central nervous system depressants)

Back 885

What are Benzodiazapenes?

Front 886

Valium

Back 886

a benzodiazepine derivative drug. It possesses anxiolytic, anticonvulsant, sedative, skeletal muscle relaxant and amnestic properties. It is commonly used for treating anxiety, insomnia, seizures, alcohol withdrawal, and muscle spasms.

Front 887

Librium

Back 887

a sedative/hypnotic drug which is a benzodiazepine derivative; It is indicated for the short term management of severe and disabling anxiety and for the management of acute alcohol withdrawal.

Front 888

Ritalin

Back 888

stimulant used to treat AD/HD; also one of the primary drugs used to treat the daytime drowsiness symptoms of narcolepsy and chronic fatigue syndrome

Front 889

ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy):

Back 889

a controversial psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect. Today, ECT is most often used as a treatment for severe major depression;sometimes bipolar disorder, catatonia, schizophrenia

Front 890

Bilateral Cingulotomy

Back 890

a form of brain surgery. It is referred to as psychosurgery and can, in some sufferers, alleviate mental disorders such as major depression, bipolar disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Front 891

albinism

Back 891

recessive trait that produces lack of pigment and involves quivering eyes and inability to perceive depth with both eyes

Front 892

altruism

Back 892

an unselfish interest in helping others

Front 893

attribution theory

Back 893

a study of our causal explanations of behavior. We attribute behavior to the individual's disposition or to the situation

Front 894

biological preparedness

Back 894

the species-specific predisposition to learn in certain ways but not in others

Front 895

bystander effect

Back 895

tendency for an observer to be less likely to give aid if other observers are present

Front 896

Actor-Observer Bias

Back 896

Refers to the tendency of an individual to regard situations in which he or she is involved as caused by external factors, and to regard situations he or she observes as caused by the actions of those involved.

Front 897

Aggression

Back 897

Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Front 898

Altruism

Back 898

Unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Front 899

Attitude

Back 899

A belief and feeling that predisposes one to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

Front 900

Attribution

Back 900

Judgments about the causes of outcomes.

Front 901

Attribution Theory

Back 901

The theory that we tend to give a causal explanation for someone's behavior, often by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

Front 902

Bystander Effect

Back 902

The tendency for any given person to be less likely to give aid if other persons are present.

Front 903

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Back 903

The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent.

Front 904

Companionate Love

Back 904

The deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Front 905

Conflict

Back 905

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Front 906

Conformity

Back 906

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Front 907

Culture

Back 907

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Front 908

Deindividuation

Back 908

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Front 909

Diffusion of Responsibility

Back 909

In emergency situations, the larger the number of bystanders, the less responsibility any one bystander feels to help.

Front 910

Discrimination

Back 910

(social behavior) - In social relations, taking action against a group of people because of stereotyped beliefs and feelings of prejudice.

Front 911

Equity

Back 911

A condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

Front 912

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Back 912

States that facial movement could influence emotional experience.

Front 913

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

Back 913

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Front 914

Frustration-aggression Principle

Back 914

The principle that frustration -the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Front 915

Fundamental Attribution Error

Back 915

The tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Front 916

Gender Identity

Back 916

One's sense of being male or female.

Front 917

Gender Role

Back 917

A set of expected behaviors for males and females.

Front 918

Gender Schema Theory

Back 918

The theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be a male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly.

Front 919

Gender-typing

Back 919

The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

Front 920

GRIT

Back 920

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction. A strategy designed to decrease international tensions.

Front 921

Group Polarization

Back 921

The enhancement of a group's prevailing attitudes through discussion within the group.

Front 922

Groupthink

Back 922

The mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Front 923

Informational Social Influence

Back 923

Influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other's opinions about reality.

Front 924

Ingroup

Back 924

"Us" - People with whom one shares a common identity.

Front 925

Ingroup Bias

Back 925

The tendency to favor one's own group.

Front 926

Just-world Phenomenon

Back 926

The tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Front 927

Memes

Back 927

Self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person.

Front 928

Mere Exposure Effect

Back 928

The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

Front 929

Norm

Back 929

An understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. It prescribes "proper" behavior.

Front 930

Normative Social Influence

Back 930

Influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Front 931

Obedience

Back 931

Submissive compliance is the act of following orders from others.

Front 932

Outgroup

Back 932

"Them" - Those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup.

Front 933

Passionate Love

Back 933

An aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Front 934

Personal Space

Back 934

The buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies.

Front 935

Prejudice

Back 935

An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members. Generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Front 936

Role

Back 936

A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Front 937

Scapegoat Theory

Back 937

The theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Front 938

Self Serving Bias

Back 938

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably.

Front 939

Self-disclosure

Back 939

Revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Front 940

Self-fulfilling Prophecy

Back 940

A prediction made about some future behavior or event that modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected.

Front 941

Social Exchange Theory

Back 941

The theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Front 942

Social Facilitation

Back 942

Improved performance of tasks in the presence of others; occurs with simple or well-learned tasks but not with tasks that are difficult or not yet mastered.

Front 943

Social Learning Theory

Back 943

The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

Front 944

Social Loafing

Back 944

The tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Front 945

Social Norms

Back 945

The expectation a group has for its members regarding acceptable and appropriate attitudes and behaviors.

Front 946

Social Phobia

Back 946

A persistent, irrational fear that arises in anticipation of a public situation in which an individual can be observed by others.

Front 947

Social Psychology

Back 947

The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Front 948

Social Trap

Back 948

A situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Front 949

Stereotype

Back 949

A generalization (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

Front 950

Superordinate Goals

Back 950

Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.