Ap Psychology

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Learning

Back 1

A relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

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Habituation

Back 2

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

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Associative learning

Back 3

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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Classical conditioning

Back 4

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events.

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Behaviorism

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The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologist today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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Unconditional response (UR)

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In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditional stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

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Unconditioned stimulus (US)

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In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically-triggers a response.

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Conditioned response (CR)

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In classical conditioning, the learned response to a previous neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Back 9

In classical conditioning, and originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

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Acquisition

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In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when on links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

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Higher-order conditioning

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A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone.

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Extinction

Back 12

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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Spontaneous recovery

Back 13

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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Generalization

Back 14

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

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Discrimination

Back 15

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

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Learned helplessness

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The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

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Respondent behavior

Back 17

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

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Operant conditioning

Back 18

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

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Operant behavior

Back 19

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

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Law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

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Operant chamber

Back 21

An operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or a key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

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Shaping

Back 22

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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Discriminative stimulus

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In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).

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Reinforcer

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In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

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Positive reinforcement

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Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

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Negative reinforcement

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Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

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Primary reinforcer

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An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

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Conditional reinforcer

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A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; aka a secondary reinforcer.

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Continuous reinforcement

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Reinforcing the desire response every time it occurs.

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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

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Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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Fixed-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.

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Variable-ratio schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.

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Fixed-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

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Variable-interval schedule

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In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

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Punishment

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An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

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Cognitive map

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A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

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Latent learning

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Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

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Insight

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A sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem.

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Intrinsic motivation

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I desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

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Extrinsic motivation

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The desire to perform a behavior to receive promise rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

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Biofeedback

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A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.

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Observational learning

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Learn by observing others. Also called social learning.

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Modeling

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The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

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Mirror neurons

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Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

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Prosocial behavior

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Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.