Ap Psychology 300

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Aaron Beck

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American cognitive psychologist, believed one became depressed because of thinking depressing thoughts

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Absolute Threshold

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The lowest amount of any stimulus one can detect

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Achievement Tests

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Tests knowledge/what you know. Think SOL

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Aptitude Tests

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Tests that measure ability. Think SAT

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Action Potential

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Nerve is firing

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Resting Potential

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Ready to fire

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Acuity

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Good or 20/20 vision

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Ainesworth Strange Situation (Attachment Theory)

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Babies who have a secure attachment to their mother tend to behave better when new situations are presented.

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Albert Bandura

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Discovered observational learning, proved it with BoBo doll experiment - kids are more likely to act violently after seeing an adult act violently.

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Albert Ellis

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Pioneered a kind of therapy called "Rational Emotive Therapy." it's a kind of cognitive therapy that (like Aaron Beck) believes that one's psychological problems stem most likely from illogical, self-defeating and irrational thinking.

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Alfred Adler

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Inferiority complex

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All or Nothing Law

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It states that once a neurons builds up it's electrical charge to fire, all of the neuron will fire or none of it will fire.

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Altruism

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Doing something good for someone else without thinking of what you'll get in return.

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American Psychological Association (APA)

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governing organization that represents professional psychologists in the United States.

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Anteriograde Amnesia

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Memory loss in which new stuff will not stick

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Solomon Asch & findings

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Did studies in conformity, line segement study, more likely to conform if in minority, thinks highly of those we disagree with and if we have not made a public committment to the statement

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Attachment

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Bonding between child and parents, takes about nine months, not immediate as in some animals (imprinting)

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Attribution Theory

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Whether or not we do it conciously, we judge people's action based on their situation or their personal disposition

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Aversive conditioning

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Using an unpleasent stimulus to train behavior, such as spanking or the pukey alcohol thing. Can have negative effects like anger towards those disciplining, and also doesn't teach what to do, only what not to do.

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Aversive Conditions

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and upleasant stimulus like sunlight, or a shock

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Babinsky reponse

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neurological test for infants, stoke the base of the foot and the toes respond by spreading, shows that nerves are working

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Adaptiveness in humans

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behavior changes over time to adjust to the demands of the environment and the situation

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bell curve

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Show of statistical normality, 68% in the middle

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Benjamine Worf

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thinking ability is dependent on the language we use. Since people in various cultures use different words to describe things, their thinking must also be different. But, Worf was wrong

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Binocular disparity

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refers the fact that because we have two eyes, each set about 4 inches apart, our brain really gets two different visual images of things out there, very important for depth perception

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Blind Spot

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Where the axons from rods and cones exit the eye, a place called the optic disc, there is a small spot known as the blindspot

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Blood Brain Barrier

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the arteries and veins in the brain are "double sealed" to keep certain molecules, and substances from crossing over the arterial membrane.

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Brainstorming

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A way to generate novel solutions to problems.

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Broca’s Aphasia

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this is a kind of language disorder that is caused by damage to the left frontal lobe. Damage in this area could lead to an inability to "produce speech

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Bystander Intervention

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whether or not you are in a hurry, whether you feel competent, whether the person is like you, whether you are with a small group versus a large group, whether or not you are in a good mood, and whether or not you feel the people around you that aren't helping know something you don't

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Cannon/Bard

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how can one certain physiological response lead to any specific emotion, and thus the two are simultaneously occuring

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Carl Rogers Person Centered Therapy

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He sat them up to face him, the therapist, rather than have them lie down and look away, and he believed that if he truly accepted the client, unconditionally, and surrounded the client with unconditional positive regard, then in this accepting and caring relationship he could best help the client grow in the way the client wanted to grow

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Carol Gilligan

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Critiqued Kohlberg's theory, He seems to suggest that males often reason through moral issues at higher levels than females. Gilligan pointed out the male bias in Kohlberg? research and argued that females have different ways of reasoning through moral issues, this does not make them inferior to male reasoning, but only points out the females value different things when trying to reason through moral issues.

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Chaining

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Learning several behaviors seperately then putting them together so it's easier

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Character Disorders

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(personality disorders) Characterized by personality flaws, such as antisocial disorder or narcissism

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Chunking

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Taking lists or numbers in smaller chunks to make them easier to remember, like a phone number or you SS#

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Classicial Conditioning

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Pavlovian conditioning, learning by association, pairing two stimuli

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Clever Hans Experiment

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Horse was trained to stomp or neigh to certain verbal cues, which to someone not in the know could be an illusion of the horse answering questions etc.

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Cognitive Dissonance

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refers to the state of uneasiness within a persons mind whenever they are "shaken up".

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Color Blindness

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caused because people lack certain photorecptors (neurons tuned to respond to certain frequencies of light) on their retina. Most common form is distinguishing red/green

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Complementary colors

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Mostly black/white, red/green, blue/yellow. There are pairs of cones that are antagonistic (work oppo site each other) on the retina and they are tuned to these colors.

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Approach/Avoidance

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having to choose something that has some good qualities but it also has some bad qualities. You want to go to Princeton but it? so expensive.

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Approach/Approach

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having to choose between two things, both of which have something good to offer. You get into Princeton and Harvard and you like them equally the same.

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Avoidance/Avoidance

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Choosing between two equally bad things. Caught between a rock and a hard place. You can eat your spinach (which you hate) or you can eat your asparagus (which you also hate).

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Double Approach/Avoidance

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having to choose between two or more things all of which have so mething good and bad about them. You got into Princeton but it? so expensive, you also got into Harvard, but it? too far from home.

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Control group

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the group in an experiment that serves as a comparison for your experimental group. They usually receive no special treatment and usually get a placebo

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Correlation coefficient

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A little number signified by the letter "r" that indicates the strength of a correlation.

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Cortexes of the brain

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"area" or region of the brain. Some major cortexes are : Auditory cortex, visual cortex, somatosensory cortex, cerebral cortex

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Cross cultural studies

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these are studies done on different cultures or ethnic groups to see the role played by one culture

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Cross Sectional Studies

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This is a technique of dividing larger sections of a population into smaller segments.

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Crystallized intelligence

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This is a kind of intelligence that consists of pure "stuff" or "data" that is stored away in our brains. It generally increases with age, which is why older people know more than younger people.

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CS-CR-UCS-UCR

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They stand for conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response.

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Daniel Goleman's Emotional Intelligence

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is the knowledge and ability to manage our emotions, respond appropriately to situations and the ability to make sound emotional decisions.

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David McClelland

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American psychologist who studied something called "achievement motivation." His research led him to believe that achievement motivation could be taught and acquired through proper learning

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Deindividuation

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what happens when people lose a sense of personal identity and accountability (responsibility).

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Deinstitutionalization

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what happened across America in the 70s when mental hospitals had to open their doors and let all kinds of folks with mental disorders go.

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dendrite

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receives incoming signals from other neurons

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Depression drugs

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SSRI drugs like Prozac which target very specific receptor sites in the brain and don't have the severe side effects.

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Descriptive statistics

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describes data, inferential statistics try to infer causation between variables

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Determinism

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the belief that human behavior can be boiled down to one or two major factors that "determine" everything about you.

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Developmental psychology

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concerned with changes that occur to humans as we grow throughout the life span. It encompasses changes from infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age.

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DSM-IV

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published by the American Psychiatric Association to help diagnose mental disorders. It merely gives symptoms and statistics about the disorders.

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Difference Threshold

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(Just noticeabe difference) Lowest amount of a change in a stimulus that you can detect, I. E. How much sugar it takes for you to say "Oh the coffee is sweeter"

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discrimination

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refers to being able to distinguish between similar stimuli.

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Displacement

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Freudian defense mechanisms that refers to taking out your emotion on an object other than the one you would like to take it out on.

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Dissociative disorders

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disorders in which we lose some aspect of ourselves. There are three major dissociative disorders: Dissociative Identity Disorder (multiple personality), fugue states, and amnesia.

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Social facilitation

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the phenomenon in which the actual or implied presence of other people enhances an individual's performance of a task.

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Down syndrome

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neurological and physical disorder that is genetic, caused by an extra chromosome on pair 21.

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Dream analysis

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Freud felt there were two levels to dreams. There is the manifest level - the stuff of the dream, the surface level, and there is the latent level, the hidden symbolic meaning of dreams.

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Human drives

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by needs. The drive to eat is motivated by the need for food.

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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early pioneer of research on memory. He developed something known as the "retention curve" or "forgetting curve". He discovered (and graphed) that material that isn't reinforced almost always disappears from our memory in a very short time.

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Echoic memory

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kind of split second memory you have after initially hearing a sound.

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effects of marijuana

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affects short-term memory and motivation. it impairs the ability to get stuff to sink into their memories and, if used more than occasionally, usually makes them apathetic and intellectually lazy.

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eidetic memory

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what used to be known as a photographic memory. It's the amazing ability to capture material that you "see."

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ECT therapy

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most effective in the treatment of chronic and debilitating depression. We think that the small doses of electricity delivered to the frontal lobes helps restore serotonin levels in the brain or helps boost the production of endorphins.

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Elizabeth Loftus

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on e of the world's leading authorities on memory - especially "eyewitness memory" and "recovered memories."

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Endocrine system

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all the glands that secrete hormones. The pituitary is called the "master gland" because it's chiefly in charge of making sure the other glands do their job, supervised by Hypothalamus

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Endorphins

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the brain's natural morphine like substances which act as pain killers. When the body is injured or under stress, the brain is flooded with endorphins which help to counter pain

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engram

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.An "engram" is sort of like a tiny bit of memory stored in a specific place.

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Episodic memories

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(flashbulb) Sharp and detailed memory of a specific event. Ex. JFK

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The equity theory of relationships

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basically we like other people because of what they can do for us and vice-versa. We put a lot into a relationship because we expect to get the same in return.

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Erik Erikson's Eight Stages of Human Development

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Stage One Oral-Sensory: from birth to one, trust vs. mistrust, feeding;
Stage Two Muscular-Anal: 1-3 years, autonomy vs. doubt, toilet training;
Stage Three Locomotor: 3-6 years, initiative vs. inadequacy, independence;
Stage Four Latency: 6-12 years, industry vs. inferiority, school;
Stage Five Adolescence: 12-18 years, identity vs. confusion, peer relationships;
Stage Six Young Adulthood: 18-40 years, intimacy vs. isolation, love relationships;
Stage Seven Middle Adulthood: 40-65 years, generativity vs. stagnation, parenting;
Stage Eight Maturity: 65 years until death, integrity vs. despair, acceptance of one's life.

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ethical guidelines

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confidentiality, no lasting harm, debriefing after the study, informed consent

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false consensus effect

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Believing more people support your ideas than actually do

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Hubel and Wiesel

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feature detector cells in the visual cortex. These are the specific neurons that help decode specific features of what you see.

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Feature analysis

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is what the brain does when it's scanning objects to help you recognize things.

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Feral children

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kids who have grown up in the wild and raised by animals, or in isloation. There have been about 8 documented cases of such children.

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Fetal alcohol syndrome

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Defects in newborn babies include mental retardation, low birth weight, premature birth, brain malformations and a whole host of learning disabilities when the child matures.

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figure-ground phenomenon

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has to do with an area of psychology that deals with perception. has to do with being able to discriminate between an object and it's background.

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foot-in-the-door phenomenon

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If you give someone a penny to save the whales, they will have better success next time they come knocking asking for a dime, then a quarter, then a dollar.

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formal operations

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(Piaget) occurs during early adolescence (12-15) when youngsters are now capable of performing at the highest levels of cognitive activity and engage in kinds of thinking such as forming hypotheses, abstract reasoning and symbolic thinking.

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fovea

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part of the eye that is the center of the retina. Here on the center of the retina are most of the cones. Cones are photoreceptor sensory neurons that help us detect colors and fine details

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Francis Galton

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He is most well known for his belief in eugenics

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Free association

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technique developed by Freud in psychoanalysis in which a person simply talks about anything that comes to mind. It is a kind of free flow of consciousness.

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frequency polygon

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simply a graph in which one "connects the dots." The picture you get is something like a mountain range.

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Freud's Dream Level Interpretation

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two levels of dream interpretation. There is the "manifest" level which is simply the surface level of the dream - what the dream is about- and, there is the "latent" level which is the hidden, symbolic level of the dream, what it really means.

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Frued's psychosexual development

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Oral Stage, Anal Stage, Phallic Stage, Latency Stage, Genital Stage

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frustration-aggression hypothesis

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tries to explain anger and violence as stemming from pent up frustration that sort of explodes when it is triggered. People get aggressive not because they are necessarily evil, but because their pent up frustrations reach a threshold and they explode

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Functional fixedness

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an inability to use an object in any other way than the way in which it was intended. For example, if you can't think of any other use for a paper clip other than holding together papers, they you're suffering from functional fixedness

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fundamental attribution error

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is overlooking the influence of the power of a particular situation and thereby jumping to conclusions and crediting or blaming the "person" for what happened.

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Ganglia

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neurons found outside the brain and spinal cord along the course of peripheral nerves.

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Gate Control Theory

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explains why and how a person can control the amount of pain running up the spinal cord to the brain. Pain is mediated by different neural pathways, some fast and some slow. A

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genotype vs phenotype

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Your genotype is your genetic coding, your phenotype is how your genes express themselves

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Gestalt Theory

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movement in psychology that emphasizes the idea that human experience is best underst ood when we consider the "big picture" rather than trying to dissect human behavior into little bits.

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Glial cells

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neural helper cells. They outnumber neurons 4 to 1. They provide many maintenance functions like moving neurons, feeding them, carrying away debris, and coating the neurons with spiderlike webs to kind of keep neural networks together.

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Group therapy

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has a number of advantages over individual therapy. First of all, its cheaper to counsel 10 people at a time than each one individually, groups provide support to individual members

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Groupthink

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interesting social phenomenon whereby individuals in a group are uncomfortable in dissenting with what they perceive to be the attitude of the leader or the majority's viewpoint.

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gustatory sense

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sense of taste (which often works with our sense of olfaction-smell). Some argue that we detect four basic tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter

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Habituation

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the simplest kind of learning. It's when you decrease your responsiveness to a repeated stimulus thus leading to boredom

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Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Response

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charts our general reaction to stress. He found that our reaction to stress generally follows the following steps: Alarm (sympathetic system initiates the "fight or flight" response), Resistance (body tries to fight the stress), Exhaustion (prolonged resistence leads to exhaustion.

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Harlow

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did lots of studies with primates. Chief among them was his famous study with surrogate (substitute) monkeys, some cloth and some wire. Baby monkeys preferred the contact comfort of cloth mothers even though the wire mothers could nurse. Guess emotion needs like tou ch are more important than even physiological needs like food

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Hawthorne Effect

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the theory that one effective way to increase worker productivity is simply to pay more attention to them. People who think they are being watched (and evaluated) show increased rates of productivity.

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Heuristics

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quick and easy mental "rules of thumb" (strategies) that we employ to make quick and speedy decisions or judgements.

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Abraham Maslow

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one of the founders of Humanistic psychology, pioneered his "Hierarchy of Needs".

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High self-monitors

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are real conscious about how they come across to other people, they're very aware of making a right impression and catering to other's expectations and needs (such as a good politician working a crowd)

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Low self-monitors

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could care less about how they come across to others, thus, their dress, manners and behavior is less responsive to the expectations of others

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Hindsight bias

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heuristic whereby one says after the fact "see, I knew it would turn out that way."

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Histogram

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kind of frequency distribution commonly known as a "bar graph."

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Homeostasis

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body's natural tendency toward balance at a level that is considered normal

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Howard Gardner

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Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):
Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")
Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")
Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")
Musical intelligence ("music smart")
Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")
Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")
Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

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Hue

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Color

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Hybrid

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offspring of two different varieties, breeds or species. Can be animal or plant.

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Role Enactment Theory

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suggests the hypnotized person is merely acting out a part to play a role suggested to him/her by the hypnotherapist

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Dissociation Theory

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suggests the hypnosis is a kind of dissociation in which the mind splits from itself, allowing one part of it not to experience pain.

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Hypothalamus

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this structure in the brain is responsible for regulating most of the autonomic

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Id

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represents our basic animal, instinctive self

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Ego

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is our rational part of personality that has to deal with reality and make decisions

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Superego

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is our moral conscience that develops over time through socialization

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IDEAL

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problem solving strategy. The "I" stands for identifying the problem, "D" stands for defining the problem in a clear and operational manner, "E" stands for evaluating the possible strategies, "A" stands for act on a solution, "L" stands for look back and see if your solution worked

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Identical twin research

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simply refers to the fact that psychologists love to study identical twins, especially those reared apart from each other, because they serve as such useful subjects in controlling for the effects of nature and nurture.

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Internalization

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Internalization is when a young boy/girl not only identifies with the same sex parent, but actually becomes very much like that parent.

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Illusory correlation

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the tendency to see correlations where none really exist. A majority of adult Republicans wear glasses. There is no pattern here between one’s political belief and their eyesight. It is pure coincidence.

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PET Scans

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Scans reveal whether or not neurons are alive or dead reflected by the a mount of glucose they are consuming

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CAT Scans

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360 degree colorized x-rays

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MRIs

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give us great pictures of soft tissue

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FMRIs

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and FMRI show us the brain at work by measuring oxygen blood flow. We can see the brain at work as it solves a math problem or as it’s thinking about a particular subject.

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Imprinting

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of immediate bonding that animals exhibit the moment they are born.

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Incentives

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are internal or external motivations that drive behavior. We are usually motivated by intrinsic or extrinsic reasons to do something

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independent variable

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the factor in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter and is given to the experimental group. It’s the one thing that is different between the experimental group and the control group.

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dependent variable

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the behavior you are measuring, the behavior you think will be affected by applying the independent variable.

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Induced motion

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the feeling of motion that a stationary person feels if the environment around you moves.

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Inductive reasoning

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when you are thinking from specific cases and trying to build up to a general conclusion

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Deductive reasoning

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is when you start from a general theory and work your way down to particular instances (top-down processing).

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Industrial/organizational psychology

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applying psychology to the world of work and business. It studies such things as worker motivation, reward systems, job placement, and organizational structure.

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Ingroup and outgroup bias

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refers to the bias one might feel if you are a member of a group or if you are an outsider looking into a group.

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The vestibular sense

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balance) is governed, in great part, by the working of three little semi-circular canals in the inner ear

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instinct

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unlearned, usually complicated, behavior. Spiders instinctively spin webs, nobody teaches them this behavior.

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operant conditioning

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pioneered by skinner, behaviors are either weakened or reinforced by punishment or reward

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Thorndike

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pioneered instrumental conditioning and Law of Effect

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Law of Effect

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Pleasant consequences to end to strengthen a behavior and cause it to be repeated and unpleasant consequences tend to diminish a behavior

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Intelligence Quotient

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simply the score you get on an intelligence test. It got it’s name because the old time intelligence tests were calculated by dividing your mental age (as determined by a test) by your chronological age and multiplying it by 100

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Proactive interference

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when old material gets in the way with learning new information (your old phone number keeps confusing you as you try to learn your new phone number).

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Retroactive interference

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when the new information now gets in the way with remembering old stuff

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Internal consistency reliability

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to whether or not a test is said to be reliable. A test is reliable if it measures something consistently.

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James-Lange theory

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it states that emotions (fear) comes from our physiological reactions. When I feel my heartbeat, my muscles tense, my adrenaline flow, I feel fear.

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John Garcia

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demonstrating that humans and animals are biologically predisposed to learn some things and not others. For example, if you get sick off food in the cafeteria, you immediately develop a taste aversion to the food;

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just-world-phenomenon

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belief that, in the end, all things considered, people get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

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Karen Horney

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she disagreed with a number of Freud's basic ideas. first, she emphasized "social", not sexual, tensions as being critical for personality formation. She also countered Freud's assumptions that women have weak superegos and suffer "penis envy,"

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Kinesthetics

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one of the senses people don't even realize they have. It's the sense of knowing where all your body parts are.

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Lawrence Kohlberg

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important American psychologist who pioneered the study of moral reasoning. He developed his three basic levels of moral reasoning: Preconventional, Conventional and Postconventional level.

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Elisabeth Kubler-Ross

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Her book On Death and Dying developed the famous Five Stages of Dying: Denial, Anger, Bargaining, Depression and Acceptance.

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L-dopa

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Unlike a lot of drugs, it can cross the brain-blood barrier and then it gets converted into dopamine in the brain. It has been used with some success in treating Parkinson's and other illnesses.

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learning curve

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was first developed by Pavlov to describe the processes of: Acquisition, Extinction, Relearning, Reextinction and Spontaneous Recovery

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limbic system

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a very ancient but powerful system in the brain that plays an important role in survival behaviors (eating, mating, fighting) as well as memory. It includes structures such as: hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus and pituitary gland

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Linear perspective

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created by converging lines in the distance. It's an important feature allowing us to perceive depth and size.

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Linkage analysis

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is a kind of statistical study to determine the role that genetics might play in a trait or illness, such as depression or schizophrenia

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Lithium

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a common mineral salt that is often prescribed for the treatment of bi-polar disorders.

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localization

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We can tell where a sound is coming from by the differential arrival time that sound waves hit one ear versus the other ear.

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Long term potentiation

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the neurological term to describe the lining up of neurons and their firing in a certain pattern which forms the neural basis for how memories are formed.

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longitudinal study

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one that reflects the study of a group or an individual over a long period of time.

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Short term memory storage

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Info only lasts about 20 seconds before decaying and we can only store 7 plus or minus 2 items in it

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Proactive interference

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when old material gets in the way with learning new information (your old phone number keeps confusing you as you try to learn your new phone number).

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Retroactive interference

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when the new information now gets in the way with remembering old stuff

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major neurotransmitters

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serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA, epinephrine, norepinephrine

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Martin Seligman

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famous American psychologist (Professor at Pennsylvania University) who is credited with, among other things, the development of the concept of "Learned Helplessness".

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three measures of central tendency

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mean (average), mode (most frequently occurring event) and the median (midpoint).

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Measures of variability

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. The range is the difference between the highest and lowest value and the standard deviation tells us where the scores "hang" in relation to the mean

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Sensory memory

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only holds information for a split secxond, it's the lingering of an image on the retina

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mental age

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was developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed this term which refers to the chronological age typical of a given performance

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Mental set/Perceptual set

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It refers to a collection of beliefs (schema) or predispositions based on prior experience that one might use to solve a problem or interpret a situation. It's sort of like a bias, or a way of intrepreting things.

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Metacognition

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Knowing about knowing "how do I think?"

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Method of loci

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mnemonic system based on visual imagery involving a series of loci(places) that are firmly fixed in memory.

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Milieu Therapy

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defined as the type of treatment in which the patient's social environment is manipulated for his benefit.

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Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

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most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders

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misinformation effect

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Human memory is not as good as people like to think. There are times when you are 100% confident in your memory of something and the reality is, your memory is wrong.

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modeling

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a form of learning where individuals ascertain how to act or perform by observing another individual.

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monocular

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Cues of depth that can be detected by one eye instead of two. For example, size is a monocular clue.

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Binocular Cues:

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Humans are able to see things that are both far and near, and can actually identify where those objects are in space (meaning, they can determine if those objects are close or far away).

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motion aftereffect

Back 189

why do I still feel I’m moving if I’ve stopped, spin around and you still feel like you're spinning,

Front 190

motion parallax

Back 190

Closer things seem like they move faster when we're driving on the highways opposed to farther objects

Front 191

myelin sheath

Back 191

Myelin is a fatty substance that covers neurons. Around your neurons is a myelin sheath (a layer of myelin) that helps increase the speed at which information can travel on the neurons

Front 192

narcissism

Back 192

An excessive preoccupation with one’s own personal importance, or with achieving one’s own chosen goals rather than bonding with others

Front 193

nature vs. nurture controversy

Back 193

This is one of if not the longest running debate since the science of psychology began…what makes us who we are and drives how we behave, our genes (nature) or our experiences (nurture)

Front 194

neurotransmitters

Back 194

Neural transmission (information being sent from neuron to neuron) works at both the electrical and chemical levels.

Front 195

rooting reflex

Back 195

a baby’s tendency , when touched on the cheek, to open the mouth and search for the nipple

Front 196

next-in-line-effect

Back 196

when people go around a circle reading words or saying names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person just before them; when next in line, we focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last person’s words

Front 197

normative social influence

Back 197

Sometimes people behave in ways just to gain approval from others, even if they don't necessarily believe in what they are doing.

Front 198

norms

Back 198

Norms are the unwritten but understood rules of a society or culture for the behaviors that are considered acceptable and expected.

Front 199

novelty preference

Back 199

response to habituation (decreasing responsiveness w/ repeated stimulation.

Front 200

obesity (role of hypothalamus)

Back 200

The state of being overweight.
Hypothalamus—lateral (left)—hunger; tells you that you are hungry
Ventromedial (right)— satiety (feeling of fullness)

Front 201

Obsessive Compulsive Disorders (OCD)

Back 201

An anxiety disorder where individuals are unable to stop thinking the same thoughts or performing the same tasks over and over again. A common obsessive-compulsive disorder is frequent hand washing.

Front 202

occipital lobe

Back 202

The occipital lobe is responsible for sight

Front 203

Oedipal conflict

Back 203

according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Front 204

one eye problem

Back 204

what you couldn't do well if you had only one eye- depth perception—allows us to estimate distance; ability to see objects in 3 dimensions although images that strike the retina are 2-D; allows us to judge distance; binocular clues—require 2 eyes; depth clues, such as retinal disparity and convergence

Front 205

operationalizing a definition

Back 205

A statement of the procedures or ways in which a researcher is going to measure behaviors or qualities.

Front 206

opponent-process theory of emotions

Back 206

A theory suggested by Solomon where emotional reactions to a stimulus are followed by opposite emotional reactions.

Front 207

opponent-process theory of visual processing

Back 207

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green; yellow-blue; white-black) e nable color vision. For ex., some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Front 208

optic disc

Back 208

The small blind spot on the surface of the retina where cells of the retina converge to form the optic nerve; the only part of the retina that is insensitive to light.

Front 209

The optic nerve

Back 209

one of the twelve cranial nerves. The optic nerve is behind the eyeball and transmits visual information to the brain.

Front 210

pancreas

Back 210

An organ behind the lower part of the stomach that is about the size of a hand. It makes insulin so that the body can use glucose (sugar) for energy. It also makes enzymes that help the body digest food.

Front 211

panic attacks

Back 211

Period of extreme anxiety and physical symptoms such as heart palpitations, shakiness, dizziness, and racing thoughts.
Panic attacks are symptoms of anxiety disorders where individuals experience brief episodes of intense anxiety.

Front 212

paradoxical sleep

Back 212

REM, which is also known as paradoxical sleep, stands for Rapid Eye Movement and occurs in cycles every 60-90 minutes throughout your sleep period.

Front 213

paresis

Back 213

is an impairment of mental function caused by damage to the brain from untreated syphilis

Front 214

perceptual constancy

Back 214

The ability to perceive objects as unchanged despite the change noticed by t he senses

Front 215

perceptual set

Back 215

Perceptual set is a bias or readiness to perceive certain aspects of available sensory data and to ignore others. (can be influence by expectations and context)

Front 216

personal space

Back 216

The "space bubble" people like to have around them

Front 217

Biological Perspective

Back 217

To understand behavior by understanding the biological processes associated with those behaviors. This includes the brain, nervous system, genetics, and more.

Front 218

Biopshysiological Perspective

Back 218

Takes into account Biological, Psychological and Social factors when analyzing something.

Front 219

Cognitive Perspective

Back 219

psychological viewpoint that the focuses on the how people (and other animals) process, store, and retrieve information and how this information is used to reason and solve problems.

Front 220

Humanistic Perspective

Back 220

This is the psychological perspective popularized by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow (hierarchy of needs) that emphasizes the human capacity for choice and growth.

Front 221

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Back 221

psychoanalytic perspective dictates that behavior is determined by your past experiences that are left in the unconscious mind

Front 222

Psychodynamic Perspective

Back 222

This psychological perspective originated from Freudian psychoanalysis which emphasizes the unconscious components such as conflicts, instinctual energies

Front 223

phenylketonuria (PKU)

Back 223

congenital condition in which the body lacks a specific enzyme. This causes abnormal metabolism that may result in brain damage.

Front 224

phi phenomenon

Back 224

One such visual illusion is the phi phenomenon in which lights next to each other blinking on and off in succession appear to actually move.

Front 225

Phonemes

Back 225

sets of basic sounds that are the building blocks to all spoken language.

Front 226

Morphemes

Back 226

The smallest units of speech that convey meaning.

Front 227

photoreceptors

Back 227

A cell that is specialized for converting the rate at which it absorbs photons to the magnitude of a signal, which can be relayed to and interpreted by the organism's central nervous system.; light sensitive neuron.

Front 228

Piaget's stages

Back 228

Sensori-motor
(Birth-2 yrs)
Pre-operational
(2-7 years)
Concrete operational
(7-11 years)
Formal operational
(11 years and up)

Front 229

Formal operational

Back 229

Can think logically about abstract propositions and test hypotheses systemtically
Becomes concerned with the hypothetical, the future, and ideological problems

Front 230

Concrete operational

Back 230

7-11 years
Can think logically about objects and events
Achieves conservation of number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

Front 231

Pre-operational

Back 231

2-7 years
Learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words
Thinking is still egocentric: has difficulty taking the viewpoint of others
Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g. groups together all the red blocks regardless of shape or all the square blocks regardless of colour

Front 232

Sensori-motor

Back 232

Birth-2 yrs
Differentiates self from objects
Achieves object permanence: realizes that things continue to exist even when no longer present to the sense

Front 233

pineal gland

Back 233

tiny organ in the cerebrum that produces melatonin.

Front 234

pitch

Back 234

tones highness of lowness; depends on frequency

Front 235

pituitary gland

Back 235

This is a very influential gland releases hormones that affect your growth as well as influencing the activities of other glands. For this reason the pituitary gland is often referred to as the master gland

Front 236

plasticity

Back 236

the brain’s capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (esp. in kids) and in exp. On the effects of experience on brain development

Front 237

positive reinforcement

Back 237

A stimulus which increases the frequency of a particular behavior using pleasant rewards

Front 238

post-traumatic stress disorder

Back 238

a psychological disorder where individuals suffer nightmares and other types of emotional distress from a traumatic past experience or set of experiences.

Front 239

Premack principle

Back 239

Reinforcing people based on rewards that aren't normally classified as rewards, such as Tv.

Front 240

primacy effect

Back 240

This is the tendency for the first items presented in a series to be rem embered better or more easily, or for them to be more influential than those presented later in the series.

Front 241

Thematic Apperception Test

Back 241

This is done by having people create stories about ambiguous characters, scenes, and situations. People are shown ambiguous pictures and then asked to make up stories about them.

Front 242

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Back 242

In this test individuals are shown various ambiguous inkblot pictures and asked to describe what they see.

Front 243

pro-social behavior

Back 243

occurs when someone acts to help another person, particularly when they have no goal other than to help a fellow human; altruistic behavior

Front 244

proximity

Back 244

geographic nearness—most powerful predictor of friendship—provides opportunities for aggression, but often breeds bonding; greater availability of those we meet

Front 245

prototype

Back 245

best example or cognitive representation of something within a certain category.

Front 246

punishment

Back 246

any stimulus that represses a behavior.

Front 247

reality principle (function of ego)

Back 247

The ego has a tough job trying to satisfy the needs of the id without giving it everything it wants and engaging in inappropriate and unacceptable behaviors.

Front 248

recessive

Back 248

refers to an allele that causes a phenotype (visible or detectable characteristic) that is only seen in a homozygous genotype (an organism that has two copies of the same allele)

Front 249

dominant

Back 249

If a genetic trait is dominant, a person only needs to inherit one copy of the gene for the trait to be expressed.

Front 250

reflex arc

Back 250

is the neural pathway that mediates a reflex. It generally does not involve the brain.

Front 251

Reliability

Back 251

extent to which test yields constant results, as assessed by consistency of scores on 2 halves of the test, on alt forms of the test, or on retesting

Front 252

Validity

Back 252

extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

Front 253

REM sleep

Back 253

rapid eye movement sleep, recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. AKA paradoxical sleep b/c the muscles are relaxed

Front 254

repression

Back 254

we unconsciously exclude them from our consciousness

Front 255

reticular formation

Back 255

Reticular activating system is a structure in the brain stem that is responsible for arousal and sleep.

Front 256

retinal disparity

Back 256

binocular cue for perceiving depth : the greater the disparity (difference between two objects) the farther away

Front 257

Robert Rescorla's findings on conditioning

Back 257

when 2 significant events occur close together in time, an animal learns the predictability of the 2nd even

Front 258

Cones

Back 258

The cones are receptor cells that help us see fine details of things and tend to help us see in situations where there is light or daylight. The majority of cones are in the center of the retina. Cones also help us with color perception.

Front 259

Rods

Back 259

The rods are the receptors in the eye which detect movement. Rods are also used in night vision.

Front 260

scatterplot

Back 260

most often used to plot correlations – is a graph used in statistics to visually display and compare two or more sets of related quantitative, or numerical, data by displaying only finitely many points, each having a coordinate on a horizontal and a vertical axis

Front 261

Fixed Ratio

Back 261

There is a fixed number of responses that must occur before you get the reward 1:5 schedule. Every five times you pull the lever you’ll get a prize

Front 262

Variable Ratio

Back 262

The number of responses will vary before you get the reward The # of times you have to pull the lever changes every time – like a slot machine

Front 263

Fixed Interval

Back 263

There’s a set amount of time that must pass after you do a behavior before you get a reward Getting paid every two weeks.

Front 264

Variable Interval

Back 264

Don’t know how much time must pass before you get the reward. Don’t know when boy/girl friend will call. Never know when a teacher will praise you.

Front 265

schema

Back 265

concept of framework that org and interprets info

Front 266

schizophrenia

Back 266

group of sever psychotic disorders characterized by disorg and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

Front 267

selective attention

Back 267

Selective attention is purposely focusing your conscious awareness onto a specific stimulus.

Front 268

self-efficacy

Back 268

Our belief in our ability to succeed in certain situations.

Front 269

self-fulfilling prophecy

Back 269

is a prediction that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true.

Front 270

self-serving bias

Back 270

readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Front 271

semantic memory

Back 271

one of the three types of long-term memory in which we store general world knowledge like facts, ideas, words, problem solving, etc.

Front 272

serial position effect

Back 272

a memory-related term and refers to the tendency to recall information that is presented first and last (like in a list) better than information presented in the middle.

Front 273

set point

Back 273

the pt. at which an individuals “weight thermostat” is supposedly set.

Front 274

Primary Sex Characteristics

Back 274

primary sex characteristics are body structures that are specific to sex.

Front 275

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Back 275

secondary sex characteristics are nonproductive sexual characteristics such as breasts (on females) and an adam's apple on men.

Front 276

Gender Identity

Back 276

Gender identity is one's own perception or sense of being male or female.

Front 277

Sexual Identity

Back 277

the sex with which a person identifies, or is identified.

Front 278

shaping

Back 278

This is a behavioral term that refers to gradually molding or training an organism to perform a specific response (behavior) by reinforcing any responses that are similar to the desired response.

Front 279

signal detection theory

Back 279

Signal Detection Theory holds that the detection of a stimulus depends on both the intensity of the stimulus and the physical and psychological state of the individual.

Front 280

sleeper effect

Back 280

When a message has a greater delayed than immediate attack on the receiver’s attitudes.

Front 281

social cognitive theory

Back 281

evaluates situations based on our cognitive thoughts and social surroundings.

Front 282

social exchange theory

Back 282

There are many different theories about why we help each other. According to social exchange theory people help each other when there is a positive cost-benefit analysis; when the benefits outweigh the costs.

Front 283

social loafing

Back 283

Social loafing is the tendency for people in a group to put less effort into the task when the effort is pooled

Front 284

social trap

Back 284

situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

Front 285

Somatoform disorders

Back 285

disorders that have some type of bodily symptom (soma = body) but don’t appear to have any physical cause.

Front 286

somatosensory cortex

Back 286

brain region that processes information coming from the muscles, joints, and skin.

Front 287

stages of learning

Back 287

acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery

Front 288

Acquisition

Back 288

when the behavior is first learned

Front 289

Extinction

Back 289

behavior dies out because associations are not made or presented

Front 290

Spontaneous Recovery

Back 290

after a time delay, the behavior may resurface on its own

Front 291

Re-extinction

Back 291

behavior goes away again

Front 292

Reconditioning

Back 292

relearning of a previously extinguished behavior, this usually takes much less time than the initial Acquisition on phase

Front 293

standard deviation

Back 293

Standard Deviation is a measure of variation (or variability) that indicates the typical distance between the scores of a distribution and the mean.

Front 294

Stanley Milgram's experiment with obedience

Back 294

The Milgram experiment was a famous scientific experiment of social psychology. The experiment was first described by Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University in an article titled Behavioral Study of Obedience published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology in 1963, and later summarized in his 1974 book Obedience to Authority: An Experimental View. It was intended to measure the willingness of a participant to obey an authority who instructs the participant to do something that may conflict with the participant's personal conscience.

Front 295

Stanley Schachter's Two Factor Theory

Back 295

human emotions contain two factors or parts: physical arousal and a cognitive label.

Front 296

stereotype

Back 296

is a "fixed" way of thinking about people in which you classify others into specific categories without much room for individualism or variation.

Front 297

stimulus generalization

Back 297

transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus

Front 298

stranger anxiety

Back 298

Although many people might get anxious around strangers, this term refers to a developmental situation in which infants become anxious and fearful around strangers.

Front 299

systematic desensitization

Back 299

This is a form of treatment or therapy for phobias, fears, and aversions that people have. The premise is to reduce a person's anxiety responses through counterconditioning

Front 300

Tay-Sachs disease

Back 300

genetic disorder carried by an estimated one in 30 Eastern European Jews; babies born with Tay-Sachs lack an essential enzyme and die in early childhood.

Front 301

testable hypothesis

Back 301

A testable scientific idea that can be proved right or wrong with experiments.

Front 302

thalamus

Back 302

The thalamus is a structure deep within the brain stem that receives sensory information from the nervous system and passes the information to the cerebral cortex and other parts of the brain.

Front 303

thyroid gland

Back 303

gland located beneath the voice box (larynx) that produces thyroid hormone. The thyroid helps regulate growth and metabolism; secretes the hormone thyroxine, which helps regulate body growth and metabolism

Front 304

token economy

Back 304

A behavior therapy procedure, based on operant conditioning principles, in which institutionalized patients are given tokens, such as poker chips, for socially constructive behavior, and are withheld when unwanted behaviors are exhibited. The tokens themselves can be exchanged for desirable items and activities such as cigarettes and extra time away from the ward.

Front 305

Tourette's syndrome

Back 305

neurological disorder characterized by involuntary body movements called tics, and uncontrollable speech

Front 306

tragedy of the commons

Back 306

a metaphor used to illustrate the conflict between individual interests and the common good. The term was popularized by Garrett Hardin

Front 307

transduction

Back 307

is the process of converting one form of energy into another.

Front 308

Turner's syndrome (X with missing chromosome)

Back 308

genetically determined condition that is associated with the presence of only one complete X chromosome and no Y chromosome and that is characterized by a female phenotype with underdeveloped and infertile ovaries.

Front 309

vestibular sense

Back 309

equilibrium: a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head; system in the body that is responsible for maintaining the body’s orientation in space, balance, and posture;

Front 310

visual cliff

Back 310

test given to infants to see if they have developed depth perception.

Front 311

water balance (role of hypothalamus)

Back 311

The body also has two triangular adrenal glands, one on top of each kidney. The adrenal glands have two parts, each of which produces a set of hormones and has a different function.

Front 312

Weber's law

Back 312

States that the smallest detectable change in intensity is a constant fraction of the level of stimulation;

Front 313

Wernicke's aphasia

Back 313

Issues with understanding language, like a stroke patient

Front 314

Wilder Penfield's research on the brain

Back 314

neurosurgeon who mapped motor cortex in hundreds of wide-awake patients—needed to know possible side effects of removing diff. Parts of brain, they would painlessly (brain has no sensory receptors) stimulate diff, cortical areas and note body responses—found that when they stimulated diff areas of motor cortex at back of frontal lobe diff. Body parts moved—mapped motor cortex according to body parts it controlled—those areas of the brain requiring precise control (fingers , mouth) occupied greatest amount of cortical space

Front 315

Wilhelm Wundt (structuralism)

Back 315

was an attempt to study the mental world with introspection, the tool that Descartes thought most appropriate for the mental realm. It attempted to use that data to fit into the mechanical realm of science.

Front 316

William James (functionalism)

Back 316

the psychological school of thought that followed Structuralism and moved away from focusing on the structure of the mind to a concern with how the conscious is related to behavior.

Front 317

Yerkes/Dodson Arousal Law

Back 317

This law states that an organism's performance can be improved if that organism is aroused in some manner.

Front 318

Zajonc's "Mere Expose Effect"

Back 318

the mere exposure effect in which you begin to like something simply because you are exposed to it over and over again.

Front 319

Zimbardo's (stanford) prison experiment

Back 319

A landmark psychological study of the human response to captivity, in particular, to the real world circumstances of prison life. It was co nducted in 1971 by a team of researchers led by Philip Zimbardo of Stanford University. Volunteers played the roles of guards and prisoners and lived in a mock prison. However, the experiment quickly got out of hand and was ended early--Ethical concerns
The experiment very quickly got out of hand. Prisoners suffered — and accepted — sadistic and humiliating treatment at the hands of the guards, and by the end many showed severe emotional disturbance….experiment's result has been argued to demonstrate the impressionability and obedience of people when provided with a legitimizing ideology and social and institutional support. It is also used to illustrate cognitive dissonance theory and the power of authority

Front 320

androgyny

Back 320

Someone who is androgynous has both male and female traits. This is not to say that the person has male and female genitalia, but that the person exhibits both male and female behaviors, emotions

Front 321

catharsis

Back 321

Catharsis is a psychodynamic principle that, in its most basic sense, is simply an emotional release. States that venting anger out gets rid of it, however, it is proven false.

Front 322

haptic memory

Back 322

Sensory memory for touch

Front 323

syllogism

Back 323

In traditional logic, a syllogism is an inference in which one proposition (the conclusion) follows of necessity from two others (known as premises).

Front 324

expectancy theory

Back 324

Many people approach problems in similar ways all the time even though they can't be sure they have the best approach or an approach that will even work. Doing this is an example of mental set

Front 325

algorithm

Back 325

methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular prob.

Front 326

ethnocentrism

Back 326

tendency of most people to use their own way of life as a standard for judging others

Front 327

Barnum effect

Back 327

is the observation that individuals will give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them

Front 328

Agonists

Back 328

mimicking particular neurotransmitter

Front 329

Antagonists

Back 329

blocking neurotransmitters

Front 330

Cooper's research on visual processing (using cats)

Back 330

He reared kittens in darkness, except for 5 hrs each day during which they were placed in a horizontally or vertically striped environment. Kittens raised w/o exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty perceiving horizontal bars, and those raised w/o vertical lines had difficulty seeing vertical bars. He found that whether such visual cells responded mostly to horizontal or vertical lines depended on the kittens early visual exp.

Front 331

Primary Reinforcer

Back 331

For example, water is naturally reinforcing because organisms don't need to learn to be reinforced by it, they naturally get reinforced especially in times of being thirsty.

Front 332

Secondary Reinforcer

Back 332

Unlike primary reinforcers which are naturally reinforcing, secondary reinforcers are reinforcing only after the organism has been conditioned to find it reinforcing.

Front 333

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Back 333

The tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) phenomenon refers to the experience of feeling confident that one knows an answer, yet is unable to produce the word.

Front 334

Flynn effect

Back 334

the continued year-on-year rise of IQ test scores, an effect seen in all parts of the world

Front 335

Divergent Thinking

Back 335

A cognitive process (a mode of critical thinking) in which a person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem. This is different from convergent thinking which attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem.

Front 336

Convergent Thinking

Back 336

A cognitive process (a mode of critical thinking) in which a person attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem. This is opposite from divergent thinking in which a person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem.

Front 337

Intrinsic Motivation

Back 337

motivated to perform specific behaviors to achieve promised outside rewards or to avoid punishment from others.

Front 338

Extrinsic Motivation

Back 338

motivated to perform specific behaviors to achieve promised outside rewards or to avoid punishment from others.

Front 339

Conductive deafness

Back 339

caused by the failure of the three tiny bones inside the middle ear to pass along sound waves to the inner ear. Another common cause of conductive deafness is the failure of the eardrum to vibrate in response to sound waves.

Front 340

Nerve deafness

Back 340

caused by disease, trauma or some other disruptive event targeting the cochlear nerve. The rest of the ear - including the tiny bones and eardrum - may be working, but the electrical impulses aren't able to reach the brain.

Front 341

Postive Symptoms

Back 341

Presence of something that should not be there.

Hallucinations, delusions, ticks, inappropriate emotions

Front 342

Negative Symptoms

Back 342

An absence of what should be there.

Flat affect, no speech,

Front 343

Garcia effect

Back 343

This conditioning simply theorizes that if animals that eat certain foods that cause them sickness or illness, they will refuse to consume that food if they come upon it again.

Front 344

Insomnia

Back 344

Inability to fall asleep

Front 345

Narcolepsy

Back 345

Unwilling and spontaneous falling asleep

Front 346

haptic memory

Back 346

Sensory memory for touch

Front 347

Agonists

Back 347

mimicking particular neurotransmitter (may temp. produce a high by amp norm. sensations of arousal or pleasure)

Front 348

Antagonists

Back 348

blocking neurotransmitters (is enough like the natural neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor site and block its effect, but not similar enough to stimulate the receptor

Front 349

Cooper's research on visual processing (using cats)

Back 349

He reared kittens in darkness, except for 5 hrs each day during which they were placed in a horizontally or vertically striped environment. Kittens raised w/o exposure to horizontal lines later had difficulty perceiving horizontal bars, and those raised w/o vertical lines had difficulty seeing vertical bars. He found that whether such visual cells responded mostly to horizontal or vertical lines depended on the kittens early visual exp.

Front 350

Divergent Thinking

Back 350

A cognitive process (a mode of critical thinking) in which a person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem. This is different from convergent thinking which attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem.

Front 351

Convergent Thinking

Back 351

A cognitive process (a mode of critical thinking) in which a person attempts to find a single, correct answer to a problem. This is opposite from divergent thinking in which a person generates many unique, creative responses to a single question or problem.

Front 352

Completely burnt out.

Back 352

Bryce's brain

Front 353

Conductive deafness

Back 353

caused by the failure of the three tiny bones inside the middle ear to pass along sound waves to the inner ear. Another common cause of conductive deafness is the failure of the eardrum to vibrate in response to sound waves. A build-up of fluid in the ear canal, for example, could dampen the movement of the eardrum. In many cases, treatment is available for conductive deafness and normal hearing will return

Front 354

Nerve deafness

Back 354

caused by disease, trauma or some other disruptive event targeting the cochlear nerve. The rest of the ear - including the tiny bones and eardrum - may be working, but the electrical impulses aren't able to reach the brain. In other cases, the problem is in the brain itself, which can't 'translate' the messages from the cochlear nerve. Most cases of nerve deafness don't respond to treatment.

Front 355

Postive Symptoms

Back 355

Presence of something that should not be there.

Hallucinations, delusions, ticks, inappropriate emotions

Front 356

Negative Symptoms

Back 356

An absence of what should be there.

Flat affect, no speech,

Front 357

Garcia effect

Back 357

the study of taste aversion conditioning; CTA, or Conditioned Taste Aversion, is an example of classical conditioning. The CTA is also known as the Garcia effect (after Dr. John Garcia). This conditioning simply theorizes that if animals that eat certain foods that cause them sickness or illness, they will refuse to consume that food if they come upon it again. Even if the food may not caus e illness or sickness again, the animal would refuse it due to its past experience with the food.

Front 358

Insomnia

Back 358

Inability to fall asleep

Front 359

Narcolepsy

Back 359

Unwilling and spontaneous falling asleep